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herstorshe · 4 years

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Isabel I of Castile

Many consider Queen Isabel I of Castile to have been the best queen Europe has ever had. Her accomplishments certainly stand out amongst those of medieval monarchs, as well as her modern thinking.

Isabel was born on April 22, 1451 to Juan I of Castile and his second wife, Isabel of Portugal, who was half her husband’s age. Juan had 4 other children by his first wife, Maria of Aragon, but only one, his 26-year-old son and heir Enrique was still alive when Isabel was born. Her parents had one other child together, Alfonso, who was two years younger than Isabel.

When she was 3, Isabel’s father died, making her older half-brother, Enrique, the king of Castile.

Anxious about his half siblings or stepmother trying to claim power, the new king sent them to a broken-down castle, near destitute, with not enough to eat. Despite this, their mother was determined to educate her children well, especially in religious piety.

When Isabel was 11, the king recalled her, her mother, and her brother back to court, as his wife had just given birth to an heir, Juana, cementing his reign.

They lived in court, with much better living conditions, food to eat, and clothes to wear. Their education continued and, in addition to literature, history, mathematics, and religion, they were introduced to art and music. The only problem was that they were forbade from leaving their brother’s castle.

Despite Enrique’s great efforts to keep his half siblings out of politics, they were completely aware of the fact that his subjects, noble and commoner, were very dissatisfied with their king, and Enrique became known as “The Impotent”. Many began supporting Isabel’s 10-year-old brother, Alfonso, as Enrique’s heir over his daughter, Juana, who many thought to have been sired by the Queen’s royal favorite. Many speculate that Queen Joan, at least once, tried to poison young Alfonso to keep him from taking her daughter’s throne. Either way, any murder attempts against Alfonso failed.

Nobles eventually forced Enrique to name Alfonso the Prince of Asturias, the traditional title of the heir. He agreed, but only if Alfonso married his daughter. It was agreed, but the king went back on his word, so the furious nobles crowned Alfonso as a rival king and declared war on Enrique.

Unfortunately, five years into the war, Alfonso died at the age of 15. His will named his sister, Isabel, as his heir. Thus she became the rival monarch to the weak King Enrique. But Isabel was wise, and she did not want war. She decided to meet with Enrique to make a diplomatic decision regarding who his heir would be. They compromised, agreeing that Isabel would end the rebellion in exchange for being named Enrique’s heir, as long has he could have a say in who she married.

Now, Isabel was well known for her intelligence, modesty, religious piety as well as her beauty. Many men, royal or noble, would have been happy to marry such an amazing woman, as is shown by how many men Enrique considered marrying her to. She had been betrothed since the age of 6 to Ferdinand of Aragon, the younger and favored son of King Juan II of Aragon, but Enrique wanted a marriage alliance between his sister and the older son, Carlos, with whom he agreed to ally with against his father, King Juan. But once Juan found out about this plot, he was furious, and sent Carlos to prison where he died shortly after, leaving Ferdinand as his heir. Enrique, wanting a stronger alliance with Portugal, then tried to marry Isabel to King Alfonso V of Portugal, but since Alfonso supported his niece, Juana’s claim to the throne over Isabel’s, she refused. Enrique tried thrice more to marry Isabel off, but all three attempts failed.

Eventually, Isabel decided to take the matter of her marriage into her own hands, and planned marriage with her second cousin and first betrothed, Ferdinand of Aragon.

She lied to Enrique, telling him she was going to her brother Alfonso’s tomb, but she was actually going to marry Ferdinand, who had secretly crossed the border. Once they were wed, they agreed that they would rule jointly and equally over Castile, and Aragon once Ferdinand took the throne. They were a great match, both intelligent, both handsome, and both great politicians. They were poised for greatness.

In 1474, King Enrique died at the age of 49, and Isabel became Queen of Castile. Upon receiving the news of her ascension, the queen took refuge and called on the support of her loyal vassals, as she knew neighboring rulers would see a queen as weak, and attack. She was proved right when King Alfonso V of Portugal invaded, married his own niece, Juana, and made a claim for the throne through her. The war raged for a year, until Ferdinand made the sly move to pronounce that him and Isabel had won. This made Alfonso’s supporters, who had not witnessed the battle, withdraw their support of him, forcing Alfonso to return home in defeat.

One of my favorite moments of Isabel’s reign was when she, during a rebellion in Segovia, went against all of her advisor’s judgement and rode out to end it herself. Her daughter, Katharine of Aragon, did the same, but with a much bigger invasion from Scotland.

In 1478 she gave birth to her second child, a son, Juan, which legitimized her reign in the eyes of the people.

In 1479, four years after Isabel came to the throne, Ferdinand inherited the throne of Aragon, when his father, Juan II, died. They came to be known as the Catholic Monarchs, keeping each kingdom politically separate, but ruling over them equally and jointly, as in their marriage contract.

Once she had cemented her reign, she began working to fix all of the problems Enrique had caused in Castile. Firstly, she had to solve the crime problems in Castile. Enrique had utterly failed to enforce law, so murder, robbery, and rape were extremely commonplace. Isabel went about solving this by forming a police force called the Holy Brotherhood to bring peace to the land. It was very effective in this, often using violence against violence. Thus, Isabel earned herself a reputation as a lover of justice over mercy.

Secondly, she had to fill the royal treasury, which Enrique had left bare. She decided to retry one of Enrique’s attempts at raising money, in which he sold off royal land to wealthy noblemen. However, he sold them for much lower than their true value. So, Isabel decided to give the landholders two options:

1. They must pay the difference of the land’s true value

2. She would buy back the valuable land at the low-low price originally paid

Most picked option 1, and so the treasury filled fast. Isabel did insist that any land granted by her brother to the Church, hospitals, or poor be left alone.

Another large accomplishment of Isabel’s was that she reorganized the government to favor those with intelligence, not wealth or nobility, as well as allow the commoners more power. She did this in two ways.

The first is that she put men with administrative skill and legal training into important positions in place of the lackadaisical nobles. This also simply improved how well the government was run. The second is that she and Ferdinand heard complaints and petitions directly from the people every single Friday. This gave the people more power, and also undercut the power of the corrupt nobility which so fraught her half-brother’s reign.

One of her most problematic accomplishments, though majorly her husband’s going, was the Spanish Inquisition, which forced Jews in Castile to either leave or convert to Catholicism. Isabel and Ferdinand did this mostly because of an agreement they made with the Roman Catholic Church that if the couple made Catholicism the national religion, they could appoint all church officials. And so, half of the roughly eight thousand Jews living in Castile fled, while half converted to Catholicism, though they remained under persecution, constantly under careful watch. Though Isabel was against taking harsh measures against the Jews, the more strict Ferdinand hired a inquisitor general to further persecute those who remained in Castile, making sure there were no practicing Jews in Castile. This resulted in hundreds of thousands of innocent people being tortured, and thousands of people being executed. This disgusting persecution lasted for 3 whole centuries.

One of Isabel and Ferdinand’s dreams was to finish their ancestor’s work at conquering the Muslim lands in Spain. They got to work on Granada, the last remaining Muslim stronghold, in 1482, recruiting soldiers from all over Europe, and getting the best artillery and latest canons. They began a systematic assault on Granada from the West, where mountains gave way to a few valleys that would accommodate an army. It took 10 years, but by 1492 they had conquered all of Granada, and were given the keys to the city on January 2 of that year. They signed the Treaty of Granada, which ruled that the Catholic Monarchs could rule as long as they allowed Muslims to live in peace.

The second big thing to happen in 1492 was when Isabel and Ferdinand decided to sponsor Christopher Columbus on his search for a route to the East Indies by traveling west, which they did in hopes of profiting off of the spice trade.

However, when Columbus returned a year later, he had not found a route to the East Indies, but instead a whole continent that had never been touched by European life before. He returned with gold and enslaved Native Americans. Isabel was against enslavement and wanted to enforce laws the new world that would forbid slavery. But Ferdinand ignored her wishes, and he and King Juan II of Portugal divided up the Earth outside of Europe for themselves, thus starting the era of New World colonization and the enslavement and death of millions.

Isabella and Ferdinand had five surviving children: Isabel, the eldest, was married to King Manuel of Portugal, and had one son, Miguel. She died shortly after his birth. The second eldest was Maria, who married King Manuel after her sister’s death. She had ten children, and died of exhaustion at 34. The third eldest, the one and only son as well as heir, Juan, was married to Margaret of Austria but died shortly after the wedding, at 19. It is said that his mother was never the same after his death. The second youngest child, Juana, became the heir apparent to the throne of Castile and Aragon. However, she became known as Juana The Mad, and is believed to have suffered serious mental health problems. But recently historians have began speculating that there were much darker forces at work, but I won’t get into that in this article (I linked a resource about it in the Resources page of my blog). And finally, the youngest child, Katharine of Aragon, whose name you most likely recognize. She was married to Prince Arthur, heir to the throne of England, but he died a year after their wedding. She was kept in England for 7 years, with an uncertain future, but eventually married Arthur’s older brother, King Henry VIII. She was infamously divorced by Henry, however, much later, when he fell in love with Anne Boleyn.

All of these family tragedies eventually took their toll on Isabel. She died in 1504 at the age of 53.

Remember this queen for her accomplishments, good and problematic. Then, it was very uncommon for a woman to rule, and also uncommon for a king and queen to rule equally and jointly. She was very pious, determined, faithful, and intelligent. When considering any set of historical figures, however, we mustn’t compare them. It is especially important to remember this with the women, as women are much more often compared, even now in the era of social media. We need to recognize that all women are strong, beautiful, and powerful.

- References linked in resources page -

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cincinnatusvirtue · 4 years

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Alexander III “The Great” Part 2: Where one empire falls, so must a new one rise...

Alexander the Great and the Macedonian army crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor in 334 BC. The composition of his army at this point was primarily Greek but did include some non-Greeks as well. It consisted of a mix of cavalry and infantry. His cavalry included light cavalry mixing Greek and Thracian horsemen. While his elite cavalry was the heavy cavalry known as the Companions of which Alexander always lead into battle personally, leading his royal contingent, it was made of the Macedonian landed nobility which was personally quite loyal to the king. This was combined with Thessalian heavy cavalry from Central Greece as well. His infantry included missle and melee infantry ranging from the phalanx or phalangists to his hoplites and hypaspists and various armed skirmishers both Greek and Thracians such as the peltasts.

The Macedonian army was faced by the Persians who called on forces from all across the empire. Persians, Bactrians, Scythians, Sogdians, Syrians, Indians and even Greeks as mercenaries. They too had infantry, cavalry, archers and even armed chariots. Memnon of Rhodes, a Greek mercenary commander in Persian service advocated for a strategic withdrawal and scorch and earth tactics which would stretch Alexander’s supply lines and deny his forces food and supplies to forage or “live off the land”. However, the Persian satraps of Anatolia saw this move as both undermining to morale and not worthwhile because the scorched earth would be their own fertile lands, hurting long term commerce. Their contention was to fight the Macedonians head on before they ventured too far into the Persian Empire.

The first major battle, was the Battle of Granicus fought in May 334 BC in what is now western Turkey along the Granicus river, as was often the case Alexander would fight many of his classic battles along rivers. For his part this was strategic, the Persian armed chariots could not be effective on muddy river banks where mobility was slowed. The Persians knew the Macedonians would attempt to cross the river and hoped to slow their advance their by bunching up the Macedonian forces. The battle started with a feint attack on the Macedonian left, commanded by a trusted general, Parmenion who commanded the Thracian and Thessalian cavalry. The Persians shifted many of their forces to meet this attack but in doing so weakened part of their line, Alexander personally lead his noble Companion cavalry into battle in a flying wedge formation. In the melee, Alexander personally killed a number of Persian nobles but was nearly killed himself by one until a timely intervention by a Greek general named, Cleitus the Black severed the Persian’s arm clean off with sword still in their hand, saving Alexander’s life. The Macedonian center now had time bought and moved its phalanxes into place across the river, supported by the bulk of the army now pushed back the Persians, the speed of their advance surprised the Persian forces who after some tough fighting retreated. The retreat happened before they could commit their forces, namely the Greek mercenaries to battle. This resulted in the Macedonians killing their fellow Greeks in a general massacre, viewing them as a traitors for having served the Persians. Granicus was a resounding Macedonian victory, their first major one over the Persians.

The battle opened up Anatolia to the Greeks who began conquering the lands. Some Persian satraps in the next several months surrendered their territory without a fight, hoping to spare their damage. Alexander sometimes let Persians stay in their positions of power so long as they supplied his army and swore loyalty to him. Gradually, Alexander worked his way along the coast to neutralize the Persian naval bases that could cut off supply lines back to Greece. He also visited the city of Gordium which contained the fabled Gordian Knot which presented a riddle to many in the ancient world, the complicated and varied tied knot was a puzzle that required challengers to unravel it, the one who solved the puzzle was said to be destined to rule all of Asia. Many had contemplated how to unravel the knot but failed. Alexander’s solution was simple, cut the knot with his sword.

From Anatolia, Alexander hoped to advance into Syria and threaten the Levant. It was at this point that the Persian Shah, Darius III personally lead an army to counter the Macedonian threat. Darius’s army actually ventured behind the Macedonian army hoping to cutoff its supply lines and trap it deep in Persian territory with no hope of reinforcement. Alexander did however rise to meet Darius. They did do along the Southern Anatolian coast along a small river called Issus. The Battle of Issus was fought in a narrow ground between the mountains and the sea, the ground was chosen by Darius to limit the mobility of the Macedonian cavalry which had been so effective at Granicus. Darius’s army was as typical of the Persian forces was multiethnic and once again they relied on Greek mercenaries, arguably their best troops which Darius placed at the center with his royal bodyguard. The Macedonian advance across the river was slowed by the river itself, the Persians fortifying their bank of the river and the Greek mercenaries hard fighting. However, Macedonian hypaspists, tasked with guarding the phalanxes weak and vulnerable flank and rear managed to break through a line in the Persian-Greek forces. This allowed Alexander to see an opportunity to strike unexpectedly at the heart of the Persians. Taking his Companion cavalry, Alexander drove his force on a right flank maneuver and then wheeled toward the Persian center, straight at Darius. The speed and fury of the Macedonian charge at the Persian King of Kings completely unnerved Darius and he fled in his chariot. This collapsed the morale of the Persian center which also fled. On the left flank of the Macedonians, Persian cavalry held back Parmenion’s left flank cavalry. Ever the observer and adapter to the situations on the battlefield, Alexander would wheel his forces to hit the Persians now exposed rear. This surprise attack combined with the holes being punched in their mercenary forces and the flight of their king lead to a rout of Persian forces. The Macedonians pursued and killed off many retreating Persians, gaining yet another decisive victory. In the wake of this, Alexander captured members of Darius’s family including his wife, mother and two daughters. Alexander held them as prisoners though they were by all accounts well treated during their captivity. Darius himself retreated to the Persian capital in Babylon.

Over the next year or two Alexander consolidated his gains in Anatolia and advanced down the Syrian coast, taking the Levantine cities either by surrender and sparing them destruction or in the case of Tyre and Gaza having to besiege them and after many months finally captured both. Alexander then advanced to Egypt where he was proclaimed Pharaoh. He also visited a temple where the Egyptian priests declared him the son of their supreme god, Amon Ra. He introduced the Greek presence into Egypt and the Levant, something that was to last for centuries with the Greeks serving as Pharaohs of Egypt until Roman rule, with a Greek-Egyptian named Cleopatra being their last famed ruler, a descendant of the Ptolemaic dynasty that was established by one of Alexander’ s general, Ptolemy in the wake of Alexander’s death. Something new was happening due to Alexander and the Hellenic presence in Egypt. Greek and Egyptian culture to a degree synthesized and Greek culture was being spread to Persia’s various provinces. He would also found the first of many cities bearing his name, Alexandria, now one of Egypt’s major cities. It would become a famed center of learning and culture throughout the ancient world, blending Greek, Egyptian, Persian and other traditions into one center. This was to become a hallmark of Alexander’s rule and legacy, as he would spread Hellenic culture to other parts of the world and increasingly it would blend with the local culture becoming a hybrid of East meets West. Reflected in art, religion, currency, governance, commerce, day to day life and military tradition.

Meanwhile, back in Greece the mighty Sparta which had remained silent during Alexander’s Asian and African adventures finally rose up to challenge the Macedonians, Alexander nor his father directly fought the legendary Spartans and the question was raised who was mightier Sparta or Macedon. Antipater, one of Alexander’s generals who stayed behind in Greece would answer that burning question. The Macedonian army crushed the Spartans at the Battle of Megalopolis virtually fighting to the last man, killing their king in battle too. This subdued the Spartan rebellion and Greek discontent over taxes and Alexander’s rule in general.

Darius III offered several attempts at negotiations with Alexander as all of Persia’s western provinces and African ones, namely Egypt, were being conquered, some without a fight which was a humbling experience for the Persian Shah. His last offer at peace was to offer half of the Persian Empire to Alexander, all the Western provinces, to become co-rulers of the empire, to taken several thousand pounds of silver and gold as payment and to arrange a marriage between Alexander and one of his daughters. Alexander did seriously consider the offer and all but one of his generals argued against it. Alexander, refused seeking to have all the empire and not just half. The war would continue.

Alexander now marched his forces into Mesopotamia or modern Iraq with the goal of taking the Persian political capital, Babylon. Darius is believed to have anticipated the Macedonians would take a more direct route through the deserts of central and southern Iraq which with extreme heat and lack of supplies would drain their army. Darius however, once again realized he was dealing with no ordinary for. Alexander ever the clever strategist took his army on an unexpected route through Northern Iraq instead, nearing mountains that would shade or cool his forces from the intense heat of the deserts to the south. This caught the Persians off guard and Darius was forced to instead move his own army northward. Some Persians figured the Tigris River which the Macedonians numbering shy of 50,000 men would have to ford was too deep and strong. However, Alexander’s army did cross and was now moving toward Babylon on the east side of the river. Darius decided to find ground of his own choosing to meet and defeat the Macedonians. He found it on a relatively flat plain east of modern Mosul, Iraq at a place called Gaugamela.

By choosing an open expansive battlefield, Darius hoped not to be boxed in the way he had at Issus, this would allow more room for his chariots and cavalry to maneuver. His force was estimated by modern scholars of being upwards of 100,000. It included Indian war elephants and various contingents and mercenaries from all over the Persian Empire as was usual. Alexander however as was often the case, took an unexpected maneuver and initiative which offset the Persians. He moved his Companion cavalry from their right flank far out on what appeared to be an outflanking maneuver which deceived the Persians into thinking this was an maneuver that needed to be countered and indeed they sent a large force of cavalry from their left to meet and clash with the Macedonians. As the Persians drew their forces to mirror and counter Alexander’s deep flank, they weakened their own center as was Alexander’s plan. The deep flank was joined by his phalanx and hypaspists infantry which Alexander had gradually disengaged them from the flanking maneuver to meet the Persians center which fixed them in place. Meanwhile, the Persian chariots armed with javelin throwers advanced only for the Macedonian regiments to part forming alleys for the chariots to pass through without causing damage, before the chariot riders were killed themselves. Parmenion and the Thracian-Thessalian cavalry on the left also fixed the Persian right flank in place. It was now time for Alexander’s decisive move. The deep flank and the fixing in place of the Persian forces effectively weakened the Persian center by creating a gap which like at Issus, Alexander could strike at Darius’s jugular once more by driving his flying wedge Companion heavy cavalry right at the Persian center and split it’s force into pieces. Darius, once again caught off guard by the Macedonian deception and fury fled the battlefield, causing panic and routing in his forces. Parmenion’s left flank however was in jeopardy and just like as Issus, Alexander had to lead a counter charge to save his left from being overwhelmed which was encircled by Persian cavalry on all sides. Darius fled and evaded capture or death as Alexander had hoped, but preservation of his army was more key to the long term goals of Alexander. He attacked the Persians in their rear with some breaking off to loot the Macedonian camp before they were dispatched themselves. The rest of the Persian army fled as the Macedonians shifted their forces to left to relieve Parmenion. It was another victory and ultimately the final blow needed to defeat Darius and the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Alexander entered the Persian capital of Babylon which he claimed to enter as a liberator, he also went onto the cities of Susa and the ceremonial capital of Persepolis which was in the Persian heartlands of modern Iran, he burned Persepolis as payback for the Persians burning Athens 150 years earlier in the Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes. Now he was declared by his new Persian nobility Persian Shah himself and Lord of Asia, in addition to his titles as King of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League and Pharaoh of Egypt. Effectively the Persian Empire ceased to be a real force at least in the western provinces. Darius gave an impassioned speech to carry on the war in the eastern half of the empire which remained unconquered. However, his satraps, especially one by the name of Bessus had enough of defeats and retreat by Darius, they took him prisoner and murdered their Shah. Bessus was then self-proclaimed Shah but Alexander viewed Bessus as little more than an impostor, with himself as the real Shah and he considered the act of murdering Darius, the rightful ancestral King of Persia as cowardly and little more than petty and unjust, a crime punishable by death.

Darius’s body would be recovered by Alexander as he set off in pursuit of Bessus. He gave him a proper burial in the ancestral tombs of his dynasty. Alexander had respect for Darius’s position and an appreciation of the Persian monarchy’s history even if they were enemies on the battlefield. He now set about trying to consolidate a hold on his conquests through a mix of his Macedonian generals and Persians who proclaimed loyalty to him, becoming his new nobility and serving as provincial administrators. He began to administer Persia, though largely as Persia had been run, seeing himself not as a new conqueror but as rightful inheritor to the prior Persian dynasty, this admiration for Persia along with the adoption of certain Persian customs and the maintenance of Persian governors and administrators by Alexander started to cause some resentment among his generals who unlike Alexander simply despised the Persians and felt Greek traditions superior. The first cracks in Alexander’s otherwise impenetrable self-armor were starting to appear. Yet, there was much work to do, such as the capture of Bessus and the conquest of the eastern remnants of the nominal Persian Empire. Alexander’s gaze was fixed to the east to the ends of Persia and beyond, to the edge of the known world...

#Alexander the Great #darius iii #macedonia #persian empire #ancient greece #military history #military tactics #ancient world #granicus #issus #gaugamela

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shinymoonbird · 4 years

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https://www.davidgodman.org/bhagavans-deposition-on-arunachala/

Bhagavan’s Deposition on Arunachala - II

In one of his answers Bhagavan stated that verses in the Skanda and Siva Puranas supported his assertion that Arunachala was a manifestation of God in the form of a mountain. After the hearing was over, Bhagavan selected some verses from these two works and passed them on to the court to supplement and support his evidence. Bhagavan entitled this collection of verses Sri Arunachala Linga Pramanya Vakyani, which means, ‘Sentences giving authoritative proof that Sri Arunachala is a lingam.’ The verses he selected are given below.

From the SKANDA MAHAPURANA,

Maheswara Kanda, Part Three,

Arunachala Mahatmyam, First Half:

CHAPTER ONE

Sanaka said [to Brahma]:

O Treasure of Grace! O Foremost of Devas! On earth there are Siva lingams which are divine, which are installed by human beings and siddhas, and which are composed of the [five] elements.

Tell me, which lingam in the landmass that contains India is immaculate, divine, of undefilable glory, self-originated and effulgent?

Brahma replied:

Hear how in ancient days the wonderful and effulgent Siva, who is full of motiveless grace, manifested with the name of Arunadri [one of the names of Arunachala].

Narayana and I were born from Him who transcends the universe.

Once we two, who were self-born, began to argue with other.

25, 31

Seeing the dreadful enthusiasm with which we were fighting with each other, Iswara, who is the embodiment of grace, …rose as a column of fire between us.

Brahma said:

He [Lord Siva] assumed the nature of a motionless lingam in the form of Arunachala.

This indeed is the effulgent lingam, the sole cause of the universe, which is visible on earth and which is renowned as Arunadri.

CHAPTER TWO

Brahma and Vishnu prayed [to Lord Siva]:

Withdrawing Your effulgence, abide as a motionless lingam named Arunachala in order to bestow grace upon the world.

Brahma said:

He [Lord Siva] assumed the nature of a motionless lingam in the form of Arunachala.

This indeed is the effulgent lingam, the sole cause of the universe, which is visible on earth and which is renowned as Arunadri.

CHAPTER FOUR

Iswara said:

I truly abide here on earth in the form of an effulgence named Arunachala [in order to bestow] the attainment [of liberation].

Since It [this hill] removes the cruel accumulation of sins from all the worlds, and since bondage becomes non-existent when ones sees It, It is [named] Arunachala.

In ancient days, when a fight arose between Brahma and Vishnu, who were both born from a part of Me, I manifested myself in the form of an effulgence in order to remove their delusion.

At their further request I, who was in the form of effulgence, became the motionless lingam named Arunadri.

CHAPTER FIVE

Devi said to Gautama:

Siva told me: ‘I abide [on earth] with the name Arunachala,’ and said that I should hear the glory of Arunachala from your lips.

Gautama said:

42, 43

In ancient days Brahma and Vishnu, who had come into existence from a part of the effulgence of Siva, but who had become egotistical, fought with a desire to conquer each other.

43, 44

In order to subdue the pride of these two, who were fighting in this manner, Sadasiva, who is worthy to be meditated on by yogis, assumed the form of a column of fire without beginning, middle or end, and stood between them, illuminating the ten directions.

At their further request, Devesa [Siva, the Lord of the devas] assumed the form of a motionless lingam [now] renowned as Arunadri. Tranquil He shines.

CHAPTER SIX

Iswara said:

I abide on earth as the form of Arunachala.

That effulgent form alone is called Arunachala.

This fiery effulgent form, unmanifest and of the nature of limitless glory, cooled down in order to protect the world.

CHAPTER SEVEN

The devas said:

O Bhagavan! O Arunadrisa [Arunachala]! You who do good to the whole world! Although You are of the form of fire, You shine in the world, having become tranquil.

Gautama said:

Having been prayed to by the devas, Sriman Arunadrisa gradually cooled down and became perfectly tranquil as Arunachala in order to protect the world.

CHAPTER EIGHT

You [Lord Siva] are seen on earth as the famous Sonadri [another name of Arunachala].

Nowhere else on earth have I seen even one lingam in the form of a hill.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Brahma said:

This is Sadasiva Himself in the form of Arunachala, which is seen even as the supreme effulgence, the cause of creation, sustenance and dissolution.

This effulgent lingam is worshipped by all the devas. Because of this, the earth is considered to possess more dharma [than any other world].

From the Second Half of the SKANDA MAHAPURANA:

CHAPTER FOUR

Nandikeswara said:

There God, Sambhu, the one who does what is good for the world, has Himself assumed the form of a hill and abides with the name Arunachala.

This hill, which is Parameswara Himself, is considered by maharishis to be superior to Sumeru, Kailasa and Mandara.

Neither Meru nor Kailasa nor Mandara are equal to Arunadri; they are abodes [of Lord Siva] filled with huge rocks, whereas this [Arunachala] is Girisa [the Lord of the Hill, one of the names of Siva] Himself.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

Siva said:

For the welfare [of the world], may My effulgent form, which is motionless and eternal, abide here forever with the name Arunadri.

CHAPTER TWENTY

Gautama said:

This Arunadri is the hill of fire itself in a concealed form.

From the SIVA MAHAPURANA,

Vidyeswara Samhita:

CHAPTER NINE

Iswara said:

Since this lingam rose up as a hill of fire, it shall be renowned as Arunachala.

41, 42

Since this formless column, which reveals My nature as Brahman, possesses the characteristics of a lingam, It shall be My lingam.

☀ ☀ ☀

Since the Skanda Mahapurana and the Siva Mahapurana are two of the eighteen principal Puranas, these verses should have been enough to convince the court that Bhagavan’s assertions about the sanctity of Arunachala were backed up by an authoritative scriptural source. Unfortunately, the issue at stake was not the sanctity of the mountain but the ownership of it.

Property disputes in India tend to be protracted affairs, and this one was no exception. The final judgement was handed down in July 1940, more than six years after the original notification. The two parties seemed to have reached a settlement out of court, the terms of which were incorporated in the court’s decision. The Devasthanam reluctantly accepted that the Government was the sole owner of the hill. In return the Government granted the Devasthanam the right to maintain and repair all the religious property on Arunachala and to enjoy all the income from the sale of the grass that grew there. The Devasthanam was also given the right to collect dead wood from the hill and to graze its cattle there. The Government reserved for itself the right to authorise the construction of any new buildings on the hill.

The path to Skandashram from Ramanasramam. This is how it looked in the decades prior to reforestation activities in the 1990s.

☀ ☀ ☀

In the fifty years that have passed since this judgment took effect, Tiruvannamalai has grown enormously. The town now has a population of over 100,000, all living at the foot of the hill, with many more living in outlying villages. As the population increased, nearly all the local forests were felled to meet the ever-increasing demand for timber and firewood. Arunachala was not spared. Nearly all the old trees on the hill were cut long ago, and sporadic reforestation projects in the last few years have failed to repair more than a fraction of the damage. The temple, although constrained by a lack of finances, has attempted to fulfil its obligation to the properties on the hill that it has been appointed to maintain. The other party, the Government, was, until the 1980s, quite successful in preventing new settlements from springing up on the hill and spoiling its sanctity. Unfortunately, neither party has been able to prevent or slow down the progressive environmental degradation of Arunachala’s slopes, nor have they been able to stop the annual fires, started by the local grass-cutters, which consume most of the mountain, destroying large tracts of vegetation and wildlife. The forests of Bhagavan’s youth have long since gone. With the local population still rapidly expanding, it will need a minor miracle to bring them back.

(First published in The Mountain Path, 1990, pp. 14-20)

☀ ☀ ☀

Postscript, February 2015

As you can see from the date, this was written almost twenty-five years ago. The ‘minor miracle’ referred to in the last line did in fact happen. Arunachala now probably has more forest cover than at any time since the 19th century. The local forest department has clamped down on illegal grazing and wood-cutting, and also planted many trees on parts of the hill. An NGO, founded by an English devotee, Govinda, has reforested much of the southern side of the hill. This NGO has also made firebreaks all over the hill to prevent the spread of summer fires, and it has a huge body of volunteers who go up the hill to beat out any fires that break out during the summer months. The wildlife is slowly returning. Some of the trees that are flourishing on the upper slopes of the hill have actually sprouted from ancient roots that stayed alive during the century when fires, wood-cutters and grazers were destroying everything above ground level. If this welcome trend continues, in a few years’ time there will be a mature native forest covering almost all of the hill.

~ David Godman

☀

#Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi #Bhagavan’s Deposition on Arunachala #Arunachala #Iswara swarupa #God in the form of a lingam #linga swarupa #Arunachala Linga #The Holy Beacon #Karthigai Deepam Festival #festival of lights #pillar of light #jyothi #jyoty #Skanda Mahapurana #Siva Mahapurana

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olivia-longueville · 5 years

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The Italian Wars: the Truce of Nice of 1538

On this day in history, the 18th of June 1538, the Truce of Nice was signed, ending the Italian War of 1536–38 between King François I of France and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

The Italian Wars, which are often referred to as the Habsburg-Valois Wars, were a series of military conflicts between 1494 and 1559. They included the following campaigns:

First Italian War of 1494-1498, or King Charles VIII’s War;

Second Italian War, or King Louis XII’s War (1499–1504);

War of the League of Cambrai (1508–1516);

Italian War of 1521–1526, which ended with the Treaty of Madrid;

War of the League of Cognac (1526–1530), which included the Treaty of Cambrai;

Italian War of 1536–1538, which ended with the Truce of Nice;

Italian War of 1542–1546 when both Charles V and Henry VIII invaded France;

Italian War of 1551–1559, which finished with the acceptance of the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis by Henri II of France, who renounced all his claims to Italy in this treaty.

The Valois-Habsburg Wars altered the political landscape in Italy and Europe. Italy was a center of conflicts between the Houses of Habsburg and of Valois for decades. Throughout those wars, territories were conquered and lost; numerous men from participating countries were killed; ruling dynasties were overthrown and new ones established; some Italian states were annexed and others appeared. Eventually, the Habsburgs won the battle for dominance in the region, which marked the end of Italian political independence. Yet, despite the Spanish control in centuries to come, there would still be some room for maneuver for small Italian city-states and for princes.

The Valois and the Habsburgs both had dynastic claims on Italy. The Italian War of Charles VIII was triggered by his hereditary claims to the throne of Naples, which had once ruled by an Angevin dynasty. The Spanish monarchs possessed the hereditary claim to Naples as heirs to Alfonso V of Aragon, who had subjugated the kingdom and left it to his illegitimate son, Ferrante, in 1458. The d’Orléans and d’Angoulême, the cadet branches of the Valois royal dynasty, claimed to be the rightful heirs of the Visconti Dukes of Milan, who had died out in 1447.

As of 1498, the Duchy of Milan was an Imperial fief. When in the same year, Louis d’Orléans, grandson of Valentina Visconti, ascended the French throne, he considered his claim to Milan part of his inheritance. Valentina was also the paternal grandmother of François I, Louis’ cousin, so François considered Milan his inheritance. Soon after his accession in 1515, François I continued Louis XII’s campaign against the League of Cambrai in Italy and emerged triumphant in the Battle of Marignano; according to the treaties of Noyon and Brussels signed in August 1516, the entirety of northern Italy was surrendered to France and her ally, Venice, including the Duchy of Milan.

Nevertheless, holding the Duchy of Milan was more difficult than François had initially planned. As soon as Charles von Habsburg (heir to the Spanish kingdoms as well as the lands of the Dukes of Burgundy) came to power, he reminded the world that most of northern and central Italy must be part of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles reconquered Milan from the French in 1521 and granted it to Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, in 1522.

King François I, Emperor Charles V, and François’ capture at Pavia

In order to restore his holdings, François personally led his troops into Lombardy in 1525, but it all ended with his captivity at Pavia on the 24th of February 1525. Later the French monarch was imprisoned in Spain for more than a year, and then he was compelled to sign the Treaty of Madrid in January 1526, in which he gave up his claims to Italy, Flanders, and Burgundy in exchange for his release from prison. Then two French princes – Dauphin François and Henri, Duke d’Orléans – would spend several gruesome years in Spain, held as hostages by Charles.

However, not even the captivity of François’ sons destroyed his designs on Italy. Between 1530 and 1536, François was determined to recover at least some of what he had lost. He still had many supporters in Italian city-states; there were also opponents of the emperor who were dissatisfied with his rising power. Throughout his life, François firmly believed that Genoa, Milan, and Asti were all rightfully his, but recovering Milan was his main goal. He stated that half of the lands of Savoy should belong to him as heir of his mother, Louise, who had passed away in 1531.

At the beginning of 1536, King François told his council that Charles V had become too powerful in Italy and that his archrival’s appetites for conquests must have been curbed. In February 1536, many legions of French infantry marched towards Savoy and soon occupied it. In late March, a French army (24,000 infantry and 3,000 horses) under the leadership of Philippe de Chabot, Admiral de Brion, captured Piedmont and then entered Turin in early April, but they failed to take Milan. At the same time, French partisans in Asti overthrew the Imperial viceroys.

In response, on the 25th of July 1536, the Imperial army entered Provence, taking the coast road through Nice. At the same time, Henry, Count of Nassau, commenced an invasion of Picardy from the north. François and his generals concentrated their attention on the south of their country, where Montmorency used a scorched-earth strategy in order to devastate the naturally fertile land so as not to leave any supplies for the invaders. The Provencal city of Aix fell to Charles on the 13th of August, and the emperor made his camp there with his army. As the French blocked all the routes to Marseilles, Charles could not go there to get fresh supplies for his soldiers, and thousands of his men died from disease and famine.

While the Imperial troops were blocked in Provence, the French sent reinforcements (a force of 10,000 Italian infantry and a few hundred horse) to Piedmont. More Italian troops, which served François, were raised by Guido Rangone and other military nobles from southern Lombardy. In early 1536, François and Suleiman the Magnificent established an alliance between the Ottoman Empire and France. By the end of 1536, a Turkish fleet was stationed near the coast of Genoa. However, the garrison of Genoa was reinforced, and there was no uprising of Fregoso partisans (they served François) among the local populace. François’ plans to occupy Genoa did not materialize, and soon Charles returned to Italy.

The war depleted the French treasury. François felt that negotiations with Spain were necessary, but he yearned to be in possession of as much of Piedmont as possible. Therefore, he joined his army and led his men in local skirmishes, which resulted in the occupation of the territory east of Turin to Monferrato and south to the Tanaro. In the meantime, Charles began to slowly recover control of the countryside in Piedmont, and to blockade the towns and villages held for the French.

Nevertheless, Charles V was besieged by internal and external political problems. The Turks and corsairs were becoming more active in the Mediterranean. The stability in the German lands was destroyed by religious and political troubles, and it was high time for the emperor to use a variety of means in attempt to stop the spread of Protestantism. There also was a brewing rebellion in the Netherlands. Thus, Charles was ready for a truce in Italy, just as François was.

King François I and Emperor Charles V, Truce of Nice 1538

Peace talks were opened on the border between France and Spain. However, François refused all the Imperial proposals because the crux of their differences was the Duchy of Milan. As neither François nor Charles was willing to compromise, Pope Paul III became a mediator between them. Finally, the congress did finally take place at Nice, where the two rulers reluctantly agreed on a truce of ten years, and that each would keep what he held in Italy at that moment.

The Habsburg-Valois wars were far from over. The Truce of Nice did not give the King of France what he wanted to have the most – the Duchy of Milan. Even if one of his sons could inherit the duchy, François dreamed of ruling it himself. The ruler would keep chasing his ill-fated dream, and Milan would remain a major cause of contention between Charles and him in years to come.

All images are in the public domain.

#king Francis I of France #Charles V Holy Roman Emperor #the Italian Wars #the House of Habsburg #the House of Valois #wars #royals

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anemoiarp · 5 years

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Hey guys! So here on Anemoia, we will be allowing character histories and personalities from the three primary canon comic timelines (new earth, prime earth, and rebirth), with any amount of in-mixing from those or any other DC adaptations. For example, if you wanted to play Bruce Wayne from New Earth but preferred the way rebirth handled a specific event or facet of his personality, you’d be more than free to add that to your characterization! The same concept goes for DCAU/DCEU/etc timelines, or other adaptations. Anemoia is meant to be a mixing of canons, so we definitely encourage making characters your own!

Because we won’t solely be following any one single canon timeline from the comics for the site’s history, we’ve written our own timeline specific to the Anemoia universe. These are the only solid, unalterable events in our universe, so they’re pretty important! As such, our TIMELINE will be the first site preview and can be found under the cut! Enjoy, and feel free to send a message if you have any questions about specific events!

** Lastly, this timeline will largely remain the same but it IS subject to minor changes by staff before the site is actually open.

334BC Vandal Savage, under the name Alexander the Great, begins a series of campaigns that lead to him conquering the Persian Empire.

45BC Under the name Julius Caesar, Vandal Savage wins the Great Roman Civil War assuming total control of the government.

1200S Vandal Savage begins a successful campaign across Asia and Eastern Europe, creating the Mongol Empire under the name Ghenghis Khan.

1400S Ruling Wallachia three separate times, Vandal Savage, under the name of Vlad III Dracul becomes a national hero and considered one of the most important rulers in Wallachian history. He ultimately goes on to inspire stories of Dracula

1888 Vandal Savage murders at least 5 women in London, England becoming known as Jack the Ripper. This is the last public persona Vandal Savage takes, deciding to work from the shadows from then on out.

1918 Diana Prince arrives in the world of men.

1961 Justice Society is formed.

1979 Jonathan and Martha Kent find and adopt a young Clark Kent.

1995 John Constantine (19) attempts to save a young girl from a demon, ultimately failing and Astra Louge is dragged to hell by the demon Nergal.

1997 Bruce Wayne (23) becomes the Batman.

1998 Reverend Richard Jiwe is murdered by his half brother General Maksai in order to claim the Tantu Totem.

1999 Jefferson Pierce (24) returns to Southside, Metropolis. Finding it overridden by crime, he takes on the mantle of Black Lightning.

2000 Alec Holland (25) is transformed into Swamp Thing after the explosion of his lab releases a bio-restorative chemical he had been working on into the Louisiana swamp.

2000 Dick Grayson (8) is taken in by Bruce Wayne after the death of his parents. He becomes the first Robin and works closely with Batman.

2001 Clark Kent (22) begins his superhero career officially -- newspapers and media beging calling him the Superman.

2001 Oliver Queen (20) is stranded on a desert island. When he returns home he becomes the Green Arrow.

2001 Ted Kord (21) becomes the second Blue Beetle, but does not inherit his mentor's ability to use the Scarab.

2003 Dinah Lance (18) becomes the second Black Canary, assuming her mother's mantle.

2003 Hal Jordan becomes the Green Lantern for sector 2814.

2004 Arthur Curry (23) becomes Aquaman.

2004 Donna Troy (13) becomes Wonder Girl.

2004 Roy Harper (14) becomes Speedy.

2004 Barbara Gordon (15) becomes the first Batgirl.

2005 Barry Allen (22) becomes The Flash.

2005 Guy Gardener receives a green lantern ring, becoming a backup lantern for sector 2814.

2006 Attempted invasion by Apokolips prompts the formation of the Justice League by Aquaman, Batman, The Flash, Green Lantern, Martian Manhunter, Superman, and Wonder Woman. They add to their ranks over the years.

2006 Wally West (15) becomes Kid Flash.

2006 Garth becomes (15) Aqualad.

2007 The Teen Titans are formed by Aqualad, Kid Flash, Robin, Speedy and Wonder Girl. Over the next few years, they add to their ranks.

2007 Due to a crippling accident, John Stewart is recruited to the Green Lantern Corps to replace Guy Gardener.

2009 Dick Grayson (17) assumes the new alias, Nightwing.

2010 Jason Todd (11) becomes the second Robin.

2011 Michael Jon Carter (29) travels back in time from the 25th century and using his knowledge of history, stages high publicity heroics.

2012 Barbara Gordon (23) is shot by The Joker. After recovering, and in spite of paralysis, she assumes the new alias, Oracle, and continues to aid others in the field.

2012 There is a lab accident in STAR labs while Silas Stone is investigating Apokoliptan technology. His son, Victor Stone (18) is caught in the blast and subsequently becomes Cyborg.

2013 Jason Todd (14) is killed by The Joker.

2013 Dick Grayson (21) moves to Bludhaven.

2013 Mari McCabe (25) returns to Zambesi, reclaiming the Tantu Totem from her uncle. Mari becomes Vixen.

2014 Tim Drake (13) becomes the third Robin.

2014 Doomsday crashlands on Earth and immediately begins a path of terror and destruction. When the Justice League is deployed to battle him, they fall in a matter of minutes. Eventually, Superman is able to defeat Doomsday, but not without sacrificing himself.

2014 Superman's body is taken from his mausoleum by Kryptonian technology, but not before Lex Luthor is able to obtain a sample of his DNA.

2014 Black Adam with a small team he assembled stages a military take over of the country Kahndaq, freeing it from the reign of a brutal dictator.

2014 Sue Dibny, wife of the Elongated Man (Ralph Dibny), is murdered, her body horribly burned.

2015 In the wake of Sue Dibny's death, Bruce Wayne begins work on project Brother MK I.

2015 Following Superman's death, four men claiming to be Superman emerges in Metropolis. The Eradicator, Cyborg Superman, Superboy and Steel -- all using the name Superman, some even sharing some of his memories.

2015 Mongul invades and subsequently destroys Coast City with a large spaceship, reducing the city and everyone in it to a giant crater.

2015 The real Superman reemerges from the kryptonian matrix which had been healing him, originally he returns with only a fraction of his powers.

2016 Possessed by the entity of fear, Parallax, Hal Jordan nearly destroys the Green Lantern corps, leaving those few survivors to salvage what has been lost.

2016 Kyle Rayner becomes the new Green Lantern after the fall of the corps, wielding one of the last green rings.

2016 Young Justice is formed by Impulse, Robin, Superboy, and Wonder Girl. They add to their ranks over the years.

2016 Anissa Pierce (18) and Jennifer Pierce (16) take up the superhero mantle like their father, calling themselves Thunder and Lightning.

2017 Jason Todd (18) returns to Gotham with the new alias, Red Hood.

2017 Stephanie Brown (17) becomes the fourth Robin for a short time. She eventually trains under Barbara Gordon to become the third Batgirl.

2017 Bludhaven is destroyed in a chemical attack known as "Chemo" and is quarantined.

2017 Having learned from his first defeat by the Justice League, Darkside employs agents to earth to destabilize Earth's power structure, he does this by trying to shake humanity's faith in their heroes. The most prominent of these agents is Glorious Godfrey, or G. Gordon Godfrey as he's known in his television personality.

2017 The United Nations creates Checkmate, a chartered metahuman monitoring force.

2017 Wally West takes up the mantle of The Flash, alongside Barry. Wallace West takes the title of Kid Flash.

2018 The first Observational Metahuman Activity Construct (OMAC) is officially created, with the intention to gather information on metahumans throughout the world -- both hero and villain.

2018 Young Justice renames itself ‘Legacy’ as they become increasingly stable and serious as a team. They earn a government sanction.

2018 Simon Baz (17) becomes a new Green Lantern for sector 2814.

2018 Children across the globe are being tested for the metahuman gene and many of them are going missing, sold into metahuman trafficking.

2018 Bruce Wayne is “killed” by Darkseid. Dick Grayson takes over the title of Batman.

2018 Damian Wayne (17) arrives in Gotham after Talia al Ghul reveals that he is Bruce Wayne's son. He’s mentored by Dick Grayson, and takes up the mantle of Robin. Tim Drake becomes Red Robin.

2019 Jessica Cruz (18) becomes the newest Green Lantern for sector 2814.

2019 Jaime Reyes (18) is found by the Scarab, becoming the third Blue Beetle.

2019 Bruce Wayne is returned to his proper place in time. Damian Wayne (18) creates a new branch of the Teen Titans separate from the Titans, primarily lead and mentored by old members of the original team.

#anemoiarp #site preview

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imagine-loki · 6 years

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Conquest and Mischief

Chapter No./ One-Shot: One-Shot

Author: Anonymous

Original Imagine: Imagine being on Earth while Loki is stranded in Sakaar…

Rating: PG-18?, innuendos slightly like tiny, humor?

Author’s Notes/Warning: I don’t know if it may have already been used, but I have it on my list of things to attempt in on way or another.; I apologize for any mistakes I make along here. I do revise every time I finish, but things may go over look while I do that sometimes. And as usual I own nothing, but my imagination.

It was awkward being in love with mischief. It was hard enough dating mischief. The most difficult of it all was being conquest mixed with mischief. However, mischief was more better term to balance it out. At least, that was what made the relationship so questionable. One would think that if someone was given a title of “conquest” that mischief was more like a side dish to the word. Yet, the two mixed with each other to some good and bad degree. There was fun and then there was trouble. There was rewards and then punishments.

Yet, here you were. At home, bored out of your mind, and rather pissed off. At what was uncertain, but whom was very obvious. You hands reached out as a terrible projection was presented to you. This was possibly–if not–the thirtieth attempt he had made. And you was certain the discoloration in this one was more seen than even a full figure.

And that figure was Loki. Although, his appearance was very different from how he was back on Asgard. At least you had assumed, he was on Asgard–or better yet dead. Yet, here he was in front of you in a fancy attire that almost felts like party or masquerade. His main color were still the same, but with hints of yellowish maybe gold. You had glared when he had randomly showed up when you was bathing. Although, he clearly last time had no remorse for the intrusion on you. You had thought your mind was desperate to see him, but when he explained himself, you wish he wasn’t a projection—because well, words would hardly express the mixed emotions he had put you through.

Yet, he kept a promise to see you from some place call Sakaar, another planet you had not even heard of–and here you were with a title Conquest. Quite a funny one at that title. However, each time he did, the projections would get weaker and weaker. Soon enough, he could hardly make the project as visible as possible. This current one in front of you was clearly lacking a few colors and you was certain he learned a ghost trick somewhere on that planet.

“Thi-I–Sorry.” the projection apologized clearly frustrated at himself.

“For a God of Mischief,” you teased as you tried to pretend to cup his face as a tender smile grace your lips, “you really should stop right now.”

The false feeling of his face relaxing into your palm made you feel some content. You could tell the project was once more going to fade away again. He had told you before that time on Sakaar had limited him quite harshly. As he was free with his magic on that planet, but to push it this far out to Earth was clearly putting a strain on him.

“A–for Conquest,” he spoke again interrupted with was felt to be glitch like disturbance.

“You’re gonna say “As for Conquest,” you repeated for him, “you expected me to rip a hole in my room to just go there, right?”

His upset face was evident you was right. You chuckled.

“Conquest,” you breath as you light tapped your forehead, “doesn’t work like that sweety.”

His expression was clearly hurt. Not from hurting you, that was already something he was concerned about. But the thought of this idea he had was clearly failing him. Yet, you accepted it as the idea of meeting him was growing more cold and difficult.

You sighed as his projection has left abruptly. You assumed it might have been disruption or something else.

“This is growing on my skin.” you groaned as you headed to get dressed. “I can be patient as long as he wants since I don’t plan to let him go without a fight. But this is just plain torture.” Slipping on your last piece of clothing, you proceeded to exit your apartment. You turned back giving on last glance at your door.

And headed down stairs to the streets.

“I really don’t want to do this, but he is the closest thing I can get at a short notice.”

For someone of mystic arts, the home he resided in wasn’t hard to find. Although, it still held some discomforting mystery that some only who abnormality would understand. You, or Conquest, might as well be the few that could understand–if only a tiny bit.

Opening the door, you was welcoming to falling a chair as a nice cup of tea was placed mysteriously in your hand. You blinked with a deadpan expression.

“Nice to know you had expected me,” you complimented as Dr. Strange sat across from you a smile on his face.

“When an embodiment of the Apocalypse shows,” he excused himself, “it’s best to try to keep them appeased.”

“I’m not here to take anything,” you assured him.

“That’s a first.” he spoke surprised in a nonchalant tone.

“I know. I am too. Even if ripping that necklace from your throat would ease my own problems. It won’t solve my half-ass curse.” you chuckled.

You took a sip of the tea. It was sweet, but a sudden sourness followed. You crossed your legs as you held the ring top of the cup and swung it in a sort of impatience.

“I’ll get to the chase.” you confessed.

“Loki.” Strange answered.

“Well, that was fast.” you whistled.

“He isn’t on Earth anymore though.” he explained.

“I’m aware. In fact, he is somewhere very far away.” you added. “You see I need your help in…” it was awkward to explain as Strange’s face was mixed with caution and anger. “Perhaps making me a portal to see him. You don’t have to do much of anything else. I’ll be on my own once you do. Nothing extra and special.”

“To where would I take Conquest,” Strange demanded, “a literal embodiment of destruction that lays waste to claim all they see.”

“To see my boyfriend,” you answered as last part came out as if you was struggling to not choke from embarrassment, “Loki.”

If he was doctor, you was certain Strange had giving a look of a possible heart attack because absolute confusion and shock graced his face. You was hoping for maybe a laugh or joke. Maybe and immediate rejection to your request. However, here was Dr. Strange clearly trying to raddled around your request. His one hand clamped over his mouth not to laugh, but finding your words with disbelief. He stared at you as he removed his hand, which was clamped together as he was still processing.

“Loki, the God of Mischief,” he inquired.

You nodded.

“Your boyfriend.” he asked.

You nodded again.

“Loki, your boyfriend,” he emphasized. “The very god that came to Earth and trying to conqueror this very planet and was in possession of one of the Infinity Stones? And Thor’s brother?”

You face palmed. “Yes, yes, yes, and for pete sakes,yes!”

“Conquest and mischief in a bowl,” Strange inhaled.”I don’t think that would be safe.”

“You literally earlier didn’t want him on Earth.” You argued. “What’s the problem of sending me to see him?”

“That was because of the problems he’ll bring along with him.” Strange defended.

“And your staring at the person who can if not bothering to restrain themselves from laying waste to this very planet.” you conquered up a side problem. “Besides, it’s killing two birds with one stone.”

Strange glared.

“Okay, maybe sending an extra problem to another planet. You won’t have to be so cautious of me for awhile anyways. I’ll be gone for possibly… quite a while. I say maybe two weeks tops or more.”

The look on Strange’s face had you concerned. It was true that wherever Loki went, problems would follows–even problems that the very mischievous god was running from. And adding you was not solving it. Yet, you was here on Earth due to many reasons–logical ones, but some very kept up wraps. And you was certain Strange was highly aware your presence on this planet was an incoming sign of within itself.

You sighed as you rubbed through your hair, “I know it’s stupid for someone of my caliber to fall for someone with quite an dangerous amount of baggage on his person. However, if I wasn’t this in love, I’d probably not be here bargain–no, pleading with you to help me see him.” You could feels some slight embarrassment as you continued your last plea. “Trust me, if I wanted to, I would rip a portal myself, but it takes so much from just me alone. Not to mention, Conquest was has been locked away for over a century. I just really need to see him, Strange. If I don’t see him now, I don’t know what will become of me. This sounds so desperate and it is. Please help me… Please? I haven’t fallen this hard for someone in my entire lifetime.”

It was suffering silence. One that choked at heart the more he remained unanswered. You had made your bargain. You had said your plea. And love was such a tricky feelings. It was sicking one. A feeling you hated, but this time embraced. Yet, it was still at the same time awkward for a person of your caliber to do it. Confessed to loving a being that was dangerous as you–if only alot. You felt Strange’s eyes on you once more. You returned the stare. Full of determination and would no doubt not take any rejection whatsoever.

“Why am I agreeing to this?” he asked himself as he rubbed his temples. “If I send you, will you keep him away from Earth?”

“No promises.” you replied.

“Then I should just say n—.” he was about to decline.

“However, I can confess you have much dangerous troubles on your planet than just Loki.” you spoke almost speaking half a truth.

Strange spoke, but stopped as he rolled his eyes. “Then you will have to help me no matter the conditions.”

“I can work with that.” you accepted.

Immediately as you got up, the regret snapped at you as the world of the room shifting. Dr. Strange no longer in his seat as so were you. However, he was casually standing while you was falling from the ceiling onto the cold floor. The pain would subside, but this was why you rarely visited Dr. Strange. There was a normality of peace, but random changes everywhere.

“Hey,” you growled.

“That did not hurt.” he mocked not paying you any attention as his hands warped in symbols.

“Do you need his hair?” you asked as you got up and dust yourself off.

“I don’t think you can—.” he denied until you presented a string of Loki’s hair in front of him. He stared between you and the hair. “I’m concerned as to how you obtained this.”

“Being on Asgard was maybe more fun than once during his imprisonment.” you grinned.

Dr. Strange never said anything else. Only snatched the hair from your grasp as you held a cocky smile that Loki would be proud of.

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imjustthemechanic · 6 years

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The Stone Knight

Part 1/? - Two Statues Part 2/? - A Curious Interview Part 3/? - John Doe Part 4/? - Escape Attempt Part 5/? - Making the News Part 6/? - Fallout Part 7/? - More Impossible Part 8/? - The Shield Thieves Part 9/? - Reality Sinks In Part 10/? - Preparing a Quest Part 11/? - The Marvelous History of Sir Stephen Part 12/? - Uninvited Guests Part 13/? - So That’s What It Does Part 14/? - The What and the Where Part 15/? - Gearing Up Part 16/? - Just Passing Through Part 17/? - Dinner with Druids Part 18/? - Kracness Henge Part 19/? - A Task Interrupted Part 20/? - The Red Death Part 21/? - Aphelion Part 22/? - The Stone Giants Part 23/? - Nat the Giant Killer Part 24/? - An Interrogation Part 25/? - Guilt Part 26/? - Rushman’s Brilliant Idea Part 27/? - Hunter in Hiding Part 28/? - Ridiculous Part 29/? - The Guy from Barton Part 30/? - Sherwood Forest Part 31/? - Buckeye’s Fall Part 32/? - Robin Hood Part 33/? - Fantasies and Consequences Part 34/? - Swords of Damocles Part 35/? - The Road to London

Sir Stephen is confused by democracy, Nat does more worrying, and Robin Hood thinks skyscrapers are cool.

They stopped for lunch in Leicester, and then Sharon took over driving while Nat moved to the back of the van, next to Robin, to eat a take-out sandwich. Robin Hood had been talkative before they’d stopped in Barton-in-Fabis, but now he was quiet, looking out the window at the countryside rolling by and chewing thoughtfully. Nat wondered what he was thinking. Was he imagining the life he could have with Marian? Wondering what had possessed his alternate self to abandon it? Pondering the nature of reality? She didn’t want to interrupt by asking him.

Besides, she had thoughts of her own to get lost in. Natasha had escaped the secret agent business and gone into hiding as a nobody academic at a university that wasn’t known for the field she’d chosen, because she wanted to be a normal person. It was a lie, of course – she had never been and would never be normal… but ‘truth’ and ‘lies’ were no longer meaningful categories. If she really wanted it, that kind of life was within her grasp. All she needed was another Grail fragment, and she could be Natalie Rushman or any other identity she wished to assume.

Really, Natalie Rushman would not be a bad person to be. She’d grown up in a suburb with parents who loved her and usually had enough money to get by. She had, as Allen had said, danced in ballet recitals and built snowmen and angsted over career choices. She’d probably done things she’d later regretted, because everybody did that at some point, but she was mostly pretty happy with her life – and, most importantly, she’d never tortured or killed anybody, or been locked up in the cold or forced to abandon a friend on the tundra. That had been the whole point of creating her: Natalie Allyson Rushman was perfectly, beautifully ordinary.

But she also wasn’t Natasha Romanov. The terrible things that Natasha had seen and done in her past had brought her to where she was today, and had taught her lessons that Natalie Rushman would never have had the opportunity to learn. Natalie Rushman wouldn’t have been able to fight her way through the mooks on Flotta, or knock out Robin Hood in Sherwood Forest, or work out how to destroy the Red Death’s golems. The situation Nat was in now needed Natasha Romanov.

Even after this was over, though… no, the thought of re-writing her past in such a literal fashion made Nat recoil as if she’d just found a tarantula crawling up her arm. There was a lot of ugly truth in her past, and she had told a lot of lies to cover it. In the future she would continue to tell lies, because it was the only way she could avoid being thrown in prison, but she preferred to remember the truth, even if nobody else did. Maybe that was another of the reasons she’d chosen archaeology – because you could learn from the truth. The ugly parts of it told you the worst that could happen, and you could look back on them and decide to do better in the future. Lies could not teach, they could only disguise, hiding the painful lessons so that you couldn’t learn or grow from them. They stuck you right back where you started and forced you to make the same mistakes all over again

“Those who fail to learn from the past are doomed to repeat it,” she murmured.

“Hmm?” Robin asked around his mouthful of sandwich.

“Nothing,” said Nat quickly. “I probably ought to warn you guys about London.” Robin Hood and Sir Stephen would have thought of the London of their own centuries as a teeming metropolis. They’d been absolutely astonished by the size of Inverness and Nottingham, but that wasn’t enough to prepare them. “The government doesn’t move around anymore, like it did in the Middle Ages. It stays in London. Sometimes the Queen stays in other places, but Parliament, which actually rules the country, is in London, and it’s also the economic centre of the country. It’s one of the biggest cities in the world, with a population of… I think eight million?” She was pretty sure she’d read that somewhere, but couldn’t recall where.

“Million?” asked Sir Stephen.

“Yes, million,” said Natasha. She took another bite of her sandwich, which she’d almost forgotten about as she pondered.

“How many is that?” he wanted to know.

Nat hadn’t realized he didn’t know what the word meant – she’d assumed he just didn’t believe the figure. She quickly chewed and swallowed so she could explain. “Oh. A million is a thousand thousands.”

Sir Stephen, sitting in the seat directly in front of her, didn’t answer.

“Do you know how many a thousand is?” asked Nat.

“Of course I do,” said Sir Stephen. “So if you were to divide all the inhabitants of London into cohorts of a thousand men…”

“Men, women, and children,” Nat said. “We count heads nowadays, not families.”

“A thousand people,” Sir Stephen corrected himself. “You could do so eight thousand times?”

Poor man, he probably thought a thousand was a large number – William had conquered England with only ten thousand men, and at the time that had been an almost unimaginably large army. As it turned out, an army was exactly what Sir Stephen was thinking about.

“If half of them are male,” he mused, “and a mere quarter of fighting age, your Queen could call up a force the like of which has never been seen on earth. That, from London alone!”

Nat shook her head. “It doesn’t work that way,” she said. “These people aren’t soldiers. The Queen can’t just order them to fight for her. If there were a battle in London, they would have to be evacuated.” She hadn’t thought of that yet, but if worst came to worst and the Red Death showed up to take the Grail by force, he would have no end of people to stab or buildings to knock down. Not to mention the unbelievable carnage if something like the golems got loose in a densely populated area.

“If she had enough weapons to arm them,” Sir Stephen insisted, “or even just asked them to take up their pitchforks and axes…”

“They don’t have pitchforks and axes, because they’re not farmers either!” said Nat. “They’re… they’re merchants and tradespeople and scholars and… and other things you won’t know what they are. The Queen can’t force people to fight when they’re not trained for it.”

“If your Queen cannot pardon a criminal nor raise an army, what can she do?” Sir Stephen asked, exasperated.

“She cuts a lot of ribbons,” said Sam.

“Shakes a lot of hands,” Sharon agreed. “Waves at crowds.”

“She’s on your money,” said Allen.

“Who makes the laws?” asked Sir Stephen. “Who leads you in battle?”

“We vote on that,” Nat explained. “Like the Romans did, but with less bribery.”

“But…” Sir Stephen began.

Sharon interrupted him. “We haven’t seen any sign of the bad guys in a while, have we?” she asked in a louder voice than necessary, to make the point that she was changing the subject on purpose.

“No, we haven’t,” Nat agreed – which was odd, now that she thought of it. Up until they’d left Inverness, Zola and the Red Death had been in step with them the whole time. They’d gotten to Dr. Hughes and stolen the map, they’d arrived at the henge on Flotta at about the same time, and they’d terrified Darren O’Herlihy. Now, however, Natasha and the others had been to Barton, to Sherwood Forest, and were on their way to London, and hadn’t encountered any opposition even once. “What do you think that means?” she asked. Should they be worried?

“Perhaps it only means that the ivy and horseshoes are working,” Sir Stephen suggested. “I never thought I would say such a thing, but bless the witches who sold them to us. Clearly they know their work well.”

“Or it could mean they’re doing something important while we’re distracted by things they figure are irrelevant,” Nat said. “If they already knew that Francis had used up his fragment, they might have gone to America or the Continent to look for some that are still active. Or even directly to the druids, who knows?”

“Or they know that we’re going directly to the Grail, and they’re following us on the down-low,” said Sam.

“They don’t seem like down-low types of people,” Sharon observed.

Having been raised in Russia and worked mostly in America, Natasha was still occasionally startled by just how small Britain was. Driving the length of a country sounded like something that ought to take a long time, but a determined person could go from Durness to Dover within twenty-four hours. It had been around ten in the morning when they’d left Barton, and they reached the suburbs of London before two.

It took the two time travellers a while to realize they were already in the city, and then, as Nat had predicted, they were absolutely astonished by this urban landscape that seemed to go on forever in all directions.

“A man could live his whole life within the confines of such a city,” Sir Stephen said quietly, “and never know anything existed beyond it.”

“I think a lot of people do,” Nat said.

Driving through London, where traffic was thick, almost seemed to take longer than driving to it, especially when they got into the city centre near the Thames. Natasha started to feel a little shaky when she spotted the outline of the White Tower above the buildings ahead of them. This was it – they were about to find out whether her theory were correct, or whether she’d wasted everybody’s time.

At the time it was built, the Tower keep had been the tallest building in London, and it had stayed that way for centuries. It would probably still be impressive to Robin and Sir Stephen if they saw it up close, but for the moment they didn’t even seem to notice it. Instead, their eyes went past it and up, to something that towered over it by nearly a thousand feet.

“What is that?” asked Sir Stephen.

“That’s the Shard,” said Sharon. “It’s the tallest building in the United Kingdom.”

“The Tower of London is coming up on our right,” Nat added. “That’s where I think William the Conqueror hid the Grail.” It did look rather insignificant with downtown Southwark all around it. Even the Tower Bridge was over a hundred feet taller. Time had rendered it nearly impossible to imagine the impact this giant stone keep would have had on a Saxon world, used to timber buildings and defensive ditches. William’s ambitions now seemed modest indeed.

Robin and Sir Stephen, however, were still focused on the Shard. “Do they let people climb it?” Robin asked. He’d figured out how the windows worked, and now rolled his down so he could stick his head out like a dog for a better look. “From up there you’d be able to shoot almost anyone in the city!”

“There’s glass in the windows,” said Sam.

“Actually, they’ve got an open-air platform at the top, I think,” Sharon said.

“But they wouldn’t let you take your bow up there anyway,” Nat added. She was starting to think… Zola couldn’t see or hear what they were doing in the van because of the ivy they’d sellotaped around the windows, but if he were following them he’d definitely know where they stopped. Why clue him in before absolutely necessary. “But yeah, you can pay admission and go up, like in the Willis Tower.” Not that they knew what that was.

“Can we do that?” asked Robin eagerly.

“We’re not here to sightsee,” said Sharon.

“Actually…” Nat glanced up at the building again, then shut off her turn signal and headed for the Tower Bridge instead of turning off to the castle itself. “He’s right – that’s a good vantage point. If we get some binoculars, we can scope out the whole castle grounds without ever setting foot in them. It’ll keep the Red Death in the dark a few hours longer.”

The Shard was even more impressive standing at the base of it looking up. Everybody craned their necks to see if they could make out the top of it, which was almost lost in the low fog. They must look, Nat thought, like a bunch of gawking tourists.

“It looks as if it were built out of air,” said Sir Stephen, taking in the shining steel and glass of the structure. “I’m not sure I trust it not to fall out from under me.”

“It’s stayed up so far,” said Nat. “Let’s see what we can see.”

#fanfic #natasha romanov #black widow #steve rogers #captain america #sharon carter #agent 13 #sam wilson #falcon #clint barton #hawkeye

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postapocalypticflimflam · 7 years

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I always become intrigued when your posts reference The Apocalypse. Honestly, I'm not that well versed with GW, so I wanted to ask if there is any specific book/section where there is a more detailed explanation of The Apocalypse? Or is this information stretched over a multitude of books?

There have been a bunch of editions of the Gamma World game, and each one has its own backstory as each writer re-imagines it; as you might imagine, they differ a lot. I’m not as familiar with Editions 2+, so they all kind of blend. To me, Gamma World is 1st Edition Gamma World, and its version of the Apocalypse is short and to the point. At some point I transcribed it and I’ll present it here now. This is text is by James Ward and Gary Jaquet:

Excerpt from “The Black Years”, by Hald Servin, 2562

Man - from Australopithecus africanus and Homo erectus erectus to Homo sapience recens - may have existed on Earth for hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions of years. During this time, one skill, one particular talent has set him apart from every other creature - his ability to conceive and create tools. Indeed, man has been defined as the “tool-making animal.”

From chipped rocks and polished bones to neutron bombs and computers, man has constantly been redesigning, improving, and refining his tools to meet his ever-changing needs. Some have been toys for children. Some have improved his life style. Others have been necessary for his survival. A few have nearly caused his extinction.

Early in the 24th century, mankind’s existence was unparallelled. The rape of the earth’s beauty and resources in the 20th and early 21st centuries had been halted and reversed, due to man’s tools. Disease, poverty, hunger - all were things of the past, due to man’s tools. Man had reached for the stars and attained them, with the help of his tools. Yet, in spite of these tools (or perhaps more accurately, because of them), the idyllic life of the 24th century came to an abrupt end. Having conquered the rigors of simple survival, man was able to turn his energies to more esoteric considerations - theology, political ideology, social and cultural identification, and development of self-awareness. These pursuits were not harmful in themselves, but it soon became fashionable to identify with and support various leagues, organizations, and so-called “special interest” groups. With the passage of time nearly all the groups became polarized, each expressing and impressing its views to a degree that bordered on fanaticism. Demonstrations, protests, and debates became the order of the day. Gradually enthusiasm changed to mania, then to hatred of those who held opposing views and ideas. Outbreaks of violence became more frequent, and terrorists spread their views with guns and bombs.

Reconstruction of the events from 2309 to 2322 has been difficult due to the lack on intact records, but historians now generally mark September 16, 2309 as the beginning of the period now popularly known as the Shadow Years. On that day, some 5,000 members of the League of Free Men were staging a demonstration for the purpose of promoting their concepts of a unified world government. At the height of their demonstration, a small neutron bomb was detonated in their midst, killing over 3,000 of the demonstrators. Rumors held opponents of world government, a group known as the Autonomists, responsible for the terrorism, but no guilt was ever proved.

The League of Free Men made no public accusations, but three months later on December 23, several hundred known Autonomists were assassinated in separate locations. In addition, the three main offices of the Autonomists were the targets of the release of a newly developed nerve gas. The nerve gas was responsible for approximately 3,000 deaths, the majority of which were Autonomist office personnel, but at least 120 of those killed had no connection with the Autonomists. Blame for the killings was placed on the League, but again no positive guilt was proved. The failure of official investigations to convict the perpetrators of these mass murders created a wave of vigilante actions; retaliation followed retaliation. The problem was compounded as the terrorism spread across national boundaries - retribution by one group would appear in a country half-way around the world.

As the vigilante actions continued, various governments attempted to prohibit and disband suspected terrorist organizations, but these attempts only drove the groups further underground and polarized their supporters. This led many countries to declare martial law in a last desperate effort to control their populations, but the warring groups had become too powerful and had too many resources (both economic and political) upon which to draw. Although there are no records to substantiate the accusations that governments gave covert aid to certain groups in order to change the balance of power, certain circumstantial evidence seems to indicate that this did occur.

In the final months of the Shadow Years, a new organization calling itself the Apocalypse, announced it existence with the now famous Ultimatum:

“Peoples of the world - man appears bent upon the destruction of a civilization that has taken centuries to build, and quite likely upon his own extinction as well. If that is his will... so be it! “We, the Apocalypse, demand an immediate cessation of this insane violence, or we will end it for you... with a force you cannot conceive. “We have the power. “The choice is yours!”

The exact identity of the Apocalypse was, and still is, unknown. Some have theorized that the group was composed of scientists. Some believe it was a special military group. Whatever its constituency, few believed the ultimatum when it was issued, and the fighting continued - until five days later, on April 17. At exactly 1200 GMT, the capital city of each of the 131 nations of the world was turned into crater of radioactive slag.

The Apocalypse spoke to the world for the second and last time:

“Peoples of the world - you have been warned. “We have the power. “The choice is yours!”

Again, due to lack of records, it is not know how the location of the Apocalypse base was discovered, or who initiated the attack. Some evidence indicates the action was a joint effort by nearly all the surviving terrorist and vigilante groups - united for the first time in the Shadow Years. In the end, though, on May 1 a massive attack was mounted agains the Apocalypse base. In turn, the Apocalypse retaliated with a fury never before witnessed on the face of the earth. Oceans boiled, continents buckled, the skies blazed with the light of unbelievable energies.

Suddenly it was all over.

The civilization of man had been slashed, burned, crushed, and the pieces scattered to the four winds. Whether the Apocalypse had intended to completely destroy all life on the planet and had failed, or if they simply had not had enough power, is debatable. Some scholars contend that the Apocalypse voluntarily stopped their promised destruction when they witnessed the horror they had unleashed and then destroyed themselves. At the time, and even now, the question is moot.

What did matter was that man survived. The Black Years that followed the Shadow Years were spent struggling to survive in a suddenly savage and vastly changed world. The process was a painful one, filled with nearly as much terror and violence as the Shadow Years.

The devastation wrought by the Apocalypse had changed the very fabric of life on earth. The weapons and devices they used had completely obliterated some forms of life, mutated others to the point where they could not be recognized as what they had once been, and had developed new abilities in others. Man was not immune to these changes.

But through it all, the death, the pain, the horror, and facing the prospect of an unknown future, man continued to search for his lost knowledge, struggled to rebuild his self-destroyed civilization, and strove to regain his tools.

During the Black Years, those who held the tools, held the power.

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goconservativechristian · 4 years

Text

Origin and History of Catholicism [Part II]by Moisés Pinedo

[EDITOR'S NOTE: To read Part I of this article, click

HERE

]CATHOLIC DEVELOPMENTA new church was born, a church completely different from the church established by Christ. While the church of Christ was born in Jerusalem (Acts 1:12; 2:1; etc.), this church was born in Rome. While the church of Christ was born with spiritual power (Acts 2:2-4), this church was born with political and military power. While the church of Christ was born under the authority of only one divine Head (Colossians 1:18), this church was born under the authority of one human head—the pope. This new church soon invaded the Earth with its new doctrines.However, an unexpected threat for this kind of Christianity was quickly approaching from the East: Islam. With Muhammad as its leader, the religion of Islam originated in A.D. 622 and spread aggressively. Less than 25 years from the beginning of the “Hegira” (i.e., Muhammad’s flight from Mecca), the followers of Muhammad had taken control of Egypt, Palestine, Persia, and Syria (Mattox, 1961, p. 173). With its thirst for conquest, this religion threatened to convert the whole world to its beliefs. Soon the threat to Catholicism became increasingly obvious. Many Catholics in conquered nations had converted to Islam out of fear; the advancement of this doctrine over Roman influence and its official religion seemed inevitable. The Roman religion, and the unity of the nation that depended on it, would collapse soon if something were not done quickly. Thus the conflicts between Catholics and Muslims gave rise to the infamous Crusades.The Crusades (from 1096 until 1270) were military expeditions that started out as a fulfillment of a “solemn vow” to regain the “holy places” in Palestine from the hands of the Muslims. In November 1095, Pope Urban II encouraged the masses to fight together against the Islamic Seljuk Turks who invaded the Byzantine Empire and subjected Greek, Syrian, and Armenian Catholics. He also wanted to extend his political and religious power. To encourage Catholics to involve themselves in a bloody war in the “name of God,” the pope offered forgiveness of sins, care for the lands belonging to crusaders, and the prospect of plunder (see Hitchens and Roupp, 2001, p. 186).Although multitudes of people answered the call to join the Crusades, they failed to accomplish the initial goal of recovering the Holy Lands. After many years of fighting and much loss of life, the Holy Lands were still in Muslim hands. Nevertheless, the Crusades improved the relationship between Catholic nations and stopped the advancement of the Turks in Europe.Shortly after the Crusades, new ideologies, which Catholicism considered heresies, threatened the Catholic Church. Multitudes of people, led by relentless religious leaders, executed those considered to be heretics without judicial process. The need for judicial regulation concerning heresy, the Catholic concern about the growth of new revolutionary ideas, and the desire to increase the power of the Catholic Church, gave rise to another wave of bloodshed paradoxically known in history as the “Holy” Inquisition.The Inquisition is described generally as the judicial institution created in the Middle Ages to deal with the enemies of the state religion (i.e., Catholicism). There were three types of inquisitions.

The Episcopal Inquisition was established by Pope Lucius III in 1184. It was overseen and administered by local bishops. Once the orthodox doctrines were established, any deviation from them was investigated and studied by the bishop of the respective diocese. If the “crime” was confirmed, it was punished, primarily by canonic penances (see Chami, 1999a).

The Pontifical Inquisition was created by Pope Gregory IX in 1231 (see Schmandt, 1988, 10:277). This type of inquisition was entrusted to the Dominican order which answered only to the pontiff. It was introduced in France in 1233, in Aragon in 1238, and in Italy in 1254 (Mattox, 1961, pp. 214-215). The inquisitors would go to the place of the alleged heresy, and with the help of the authorities, ask the heretics to present themselves voluntarily before the tribunal. The public also was encouraged to report heretics; anyone could accuse anyone else of heresy. The accused was forced to confess his “heresy” without an opportunity to confront his accusers or defend himself. A long imprisonment awaited the “heretic” who denied the charges. His imprisonment would be interrupted by numerous torture sessions until he confessed his “heresy.” If he continued to refuse to confess, he was turned over to the civil authorities who administered the death penalty to the “obstinate heretic.”

The Spanish Inquisition is considered the most dreadful of all. It began in 1478 with the approval of Pope Sixtus IV, and it lasted until 1834 (see “Inquisition,” 1997, 6:328). This tribunal was different from the Pontifical Inquisition because the inquisitor was appointed by the king rather than the pope, so the inquisitor became a servant of the state rather than the church (see Chami, 1999b). Some of the principal reasons for this inquisition were:

The Jewish “threat”—In the 14th and 15th centuries, Europe was ravaged by grave economic crises. Many plagues and epidemics contributed to this situation. Because of their strict hygiene practices, the Jews in Europe survived these epidemics and plagues. While Europeans fell into despair and poverty, most Jews retained their economic status. This situation produced many protests against the Jews and increased the political and religious avarice for, and confiscation of, Jewish wealth. Forced to give up their economic activities, and being pressured by fanatical priests, many Jews converted to the Catholic religion at the beginning of the 15th century. Many Catholics became jealous of the continued financial progress and social position of these Jews and accused them of artificial, insincere conversion (see Domínguez, n.d.).

The need for unity in the kingdom—Spain was united politically under the “Catholic Rulers,” Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, but there still were different religious ideologies in the country. Hoping to unify their country religiously, the rulers asked the pope for permission to “purify” their kingdom of non-Catholic ideologies by means of the Inquisition (see Chami, 1999b).

These were some reasons for the cruel Spanish Inquisition. In time, this brutal tribunal dedicated itself to the persecution of Muslims, alleged witches, and supporters of Protestantism.Though prior inquisitions were cruel, the Spanish Inquisition was devised to terrify even the vilest criminal. Its instruments of torture were even more innovative and inhumane than those of earlier times. Torture treatments included, but were not limited to (1) dislocation of the joints of the body; (2) mutilation of vaginal, anal, and oral interior cavities; (3) removal of tongues, nipples, ears, noses, genitals, and intestines; (4) breaking of legs, arms, toes, and fingers; (5) flattening of knuckles, nails, and heads; (6) sawing of bodies in half; (7) perforation of skin and bones; (8) tearing of skin from the face, abdomen, back, extremities, and sinuses; and (9) stretching of body extremities (see Rodriguez, 2007).Although Catholicism may want to deny its past, history speaks loudly concerning the atrocities committed in the name of the Catholic faith. Catholicism may try to hide behind the injustices committed by other religious groups to cover its own disgrace, but the truth is that Catholic methodology was the inspiration for the bloody canvas of other religious “artists.” There is no doubt that the Crusades and Inquisitions played a major role in the development and growth of the Catholic Church in a world that did not want to conform to this kind of religion.CATHOLICISM IN RECENT TIMESIn the past, the Catholic Church used violent methods to destroy opposition to its teachings and practices. Today, without the torture, tribunals, and slaughter, Catholicism seems passive toward the growth of other religions.The beginning of the 16th century added new fuel to the fire of the Inquisition. Ninety-five reasons for this were nailed to the door of the Catholic Church building in Wittenberg, Germany. Who was responsible? One man: Martin Luther. Although some men before him had attempted to ignite the fire of reformation (e.g., John Wycliffe, John Hus, et al.), the Reformation movement was ineffective until Luther.Martin Luther was born in Eisleben, Saxony, Germany in 1483. He was the son of a poor miner and paid for his studies at the University of Erfurt with alms he collected. In 1505, he became more interested in the salvation of his soul and the search for spiritual peace thanthe study of law. He entered the Augustinian monastery at Erfurt where he became a devout, but spiritually troubled, monk. By 1508, Luther had come to the conclusion that some teachings and organization of the Catholic Church were completely different from those of the New Testament. The immorality of the clergy in Rome, irreverence toward the sacraments by their own defenders, and the avarice of those who collected indulgences and other penalties set Martin Luther on a collision course with the Catholic Church. In 1517, his 95 theses disturbed the Catholic world to the point that, by 1520, the pope drew up a bull calling for Luther to recant his teachings or be excommunicated.However, he did not succumb to this threat, and continued to spread his teachings (see Mattox, 1961, pp. 243-261; Pelikan, 1988, 12:531-533). Others, such as Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) in Switzerland and John Calvin (1509-1564) in France and Geneva, Switzerland, also contributed greatly to the Reformation and the development of Protestant religions.Various conditions helped the progress of the Reformation in the 16th century. (1) The Renaissance—This cultural movement stimulated intellectual freedom and awakened enthusiastic study of the Scriptures in Europe. Many people began to realize the difference between Catholicism and New Testament Christianity. (2) Corruption of the hierarchy in the Catholic Church—Money bought rights and privileges, and immorality ruled the day, even among the Catholic clergy. Inconsistency between faith and practice became notorious. (3) Secular sovereigns’ support of opposition to Catholic hierarchy—By this time, the Catholic Church owned a third of the land of Western Europe. Kings and rulers were eager to possess this land, as well as other properties that the church had taken for itself. (4) The advent of the printing press—Luther and others used the printing press to spread their ideas and the Scriptures throughout Germany and other countries (see Mattox, 1961, pp. 239-246). By 1542, Protestantism was spreading to many places and was even penetrating Italy with its doctrines. Because of his fear of this new ideological rebellion, Pope Paul IIIincited the public and church leaders to return to the harsh levels of the Inquisition. In spite of this, Protestantism flourished.The Catholic Church had encountered a great enemy that seemingly lacked the faintest intention of yielding. However, the “Holy Office” of the Inquisition continued work during the subsequent centuries and expanded to the colonies of Spain in the New World. The tribunal of the Inquisition had jurisdiction over other tribunals organized in Latin American colonies. In these colonies, the Inquisition did not reach the same disgraceful level it did in Europe since natives merely were beginning to learn the Catholic religion and did not yet understand every Catholic dogma. But the poor example of “kindness” shown in conquered nations could not erase the inherent cruelty of the “holy” tribunal.In 1808, Joseph Bonaparte (brother of Napoleon) signed a decree terminating the “Holy Office,” but it was not until 1834 that the final edict of its abolition was published (see O’Malley, 2001; “Inquisition,” 1997, 6:328). Having its political, military, and social arm broken, the only thing left for the Catholic Church was to “follow the herd” and accept what seemed to be the end of its dictatorship.In sharp contrast to its past, the Catholic Church has become progressively more tolerant of other religions in spite of its public, verbal opposition. This tolerance has led to a mixture of Catholicism with evangelical religions, such as Lutheranism, Pentecostalism, etc., resulting in serious repercussions for Catholicism worldwide. This situation clearly shows that this kind of religion is based not on the Bible, but on religious preferences. No one can say with certainty what the Catholic Church will become or accept in the future, but history vividly illuminates its past beliefs and practices.REFERENCESChami, Pablo A. (1999a), “Origin of the Inquisition” [“Origen de la Inquisición”], [On-line], URL:http://www.pachami.com/Inquisicion/Origen.html.Chami, Pablo A. (1999b), “The Spanish Inquisition” [“La Inquisición en España”], [On-line], URL: http://pachami.com/Inquisicion/Espa.htm.Domínguez, Antonio O. (no date), “The Jewish Problem” [“El Problema Judío”], [On-line], URL: http://www.vallenajerilla.com/berceo/florilegio/inquisicion/problema judio.htm.Hitchens, Marilynn and Heidi Roupp (2001), How to Prepare for SAT: World History(Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series).“Inquisition” (1997), The New Encyclopædia Britannica (London: Encyclopædia Britannica).Mattox, F.W. (1961), The Eternal Kingdom (Delight, AR: Gospel Light).O’Malley, John W (2001), “Inquisition,” Encarta Encyclopedia 2002 (Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation).Pelikan, Jaroslav (1988), “Luther, Martin,” The World Book Encyclopedia (Chicago, IL: World Book).Rodriguez, Ana (2007), “Inquisition: Torture Instruments, ‘a Cultural Shock’ for the Audience” [“Inquisición: Instrumentos de Tortura, ‘Sacudida Cultural’ para el Espectador”], La Jornada, March 9, [On-line], URL: http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2007/01/09/index.php?section=cultura& ;article=a04n1cul.Schmandt, Raymond H. (1988), The World Book Encyclopedia (Chicago, IL: World Book).

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stevefinnellp-blog · 5 years

Text

Origin and History of Catholicism [Part II]by Moisés Pinedo

[EDITOR'S NOTE: To read Part I of this article, click

HERE

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stevefinnell-blog · 5 years

Text

Origin and History of Catholicism [Part II]by Moisés Pinedo

[EDITOR'S NOTE: To read Part I of this article, click

HERE

For catalog, samples, or further information, contact:

Apologetics Press

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megaonewayjesuslove-blog · 5 years

Text

Origin and History of Catholicism [Part II]by Moisés Pinedo

[EDITOR'S NOTE: To read Part I of this article, click

HERE

For catalog, samples, or further information, contact:

Apologetics Press

230 Landmark Drive

Montgomery, Alabama 36117

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Phone (334) 272-8558

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hallsp · 7 years

Text

Myths

Nations are forged in the fires of history but they remain molten, recast with each generation in the imperfect furnace of memory and imagination.

The controversial French philologist Ernest Renan was right when he once remarked that: “In order for a nation to exist, it had to remember certain things, and also forget certain things.”

The remembering of history often involves simplification, whereas I’d rather reflect its true complexity, with the result that the “agreed-upon facts,” to borrow a phrase from Gore Vidal, regularly need re-examination.

The most critical event in Irish history, without doubt, was the Norman conquest of Ireland in 1169. This was the beginning of English rule in Ireland, which would continue, in one form or another, down to the present day.

The 12th century “Anglo-Norman” conquest of Ireland was, in point of fact, largely Franco-Hibernian in nature. It consisted in an alliance of the Angevin King Henry II (Court Manteau) and the exiled King of Leinster, Dermot MacMurrough.

Henry II was born in France, spoke Norman French, married Eleanor of Acquitane, and spent fully two-thirds of his reign on the continent. The French Normans, in the person of William the Conquerer, had invaded Britain just a century earlier, defeating Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.

Dermot MacMurrough allied himself with Henry II because he wanted to regain the Kingdom of Leinster, which had been taken from him by Rory O’Connor, the last High King of Ireland.

Jonathan Swift jokingly said that Henry had arrived in Ireland “half by force, half by consent.” The Irish History Reader, published by the Christian Brothers in 1905, puts it succinctly: “Ireland was once an independent nation. She lost her independence not so much through the power of her enemies, as by the folly of her sons.”

Interestingly, one of the first references to Ireland in the historical record, courtesy of Tacitus, the Roman historian, mentions a very similar scenario, in which an unnamed Irish chief, possibly Túathal Techtmar, exiled in the first century, sought refuge with General Agricola, who also thought of invading the Land of Winter.

The Normans were not the only invading power in the British Isles. Scots (Scoti in Latin) was the term used by Roman Britons in referring to the marauding Irish Gaels. In the 6th century, Dál Riata, a Gaelic kingdom in Northern Ireland and Scotland, became so powerful that Gaelic became the language of Northern Britain, hence the provenance of Scottish Gaelic and the etymology of Scotland itself. So, the Normans might have brought English (which is half Norman French anyway) to Ireland, but the Irish brought Gaelic to Scotland. And while we may not speak much Gaelic anymore, at least it’s survived. The Scots (in Scotland) can’t say the same about poor old Pictish. One other example: in 1111, Domnall Ua Briain, the great-grandson of Brian Boru, famous High King of Ireland, became King of the Isles (Hebrides, isles of the Firth of Clyde, and the Isle of Man) by sheer force of arms.

Indeed, the Normans weren’t the only ones boldly interfering in the affairs of a neighbouring kingdom. In 1051, prior to the Norman conquest of England itself, Harold Godwinson sought refuge in Ireland, with Diarmait mac Maíl-na-mBó in Leinster. Harold’s sons, Godwine and Edmund, fled here in 1066, and attempted to retake Britain from their base in Ireland, with fleets supplied by Diarmait, in 1068 and 1069. The colonial history of these islands might have been reversed in the event of their success.

The Vikings were not the only raiders and plunderers on the island of Ireland. According to the Annals, for example, Clonmacnoise was much more often attacked by the native Irish than by the Vikings. Indeed, even the monasteries themselves went to war with one another. Clonmacnoise went to war with Birr in 760, and with Durrow in 764. In 817, during a battle between the monasteries of Taghmon and Ferns, four hundred were slain.

The Battle of Clontarf, in 1014, is often imagined as the last stand of the Gaelic High King of Ireland, Brian Boru, against the marauding foreigner, the Norse King of Dublin, Sigtrygg Silkbeard. In actual fact, Sigtrygg was born in Ireland; he was also married to Brian Boru’s daughter. Brian himself was supported by Vikings from Limerick; and Sigtrygg was supported by Máel Mórda, King of Leinster, and Sigtrygg’s uncle!

The island of Ireland was not politically united until after the arrival of the Anglo-Normans, notwithstanding the exceptional High Kingships of Brian Boru and Rory O’Connor. There never existed a unified political entity called Ireland until about the 16th century, with the Tudor Conquest, the establishment of the Kingdom of Ireland, and the legal process of Surrender and Regrant; even then it took centuries of consolidation. Clearly there was a common heritage amongst the inhabitants of our little island prior to this, in terms of language and customs, but the country was made up of rival kingdoms, each vying for power and glory, just like everywhere else on God’s green Earth.

The omnipresent Catholic Church actually gave its imprematur to the Norman invasion of Ireland, as Henry II was granted the Lordship of Ireland by Pope Adrian IV, the first (and last) English Bishop of Rome. Laudabiliter, the papal bull granting this privilege, is extremely controversial, with many claiming it as a forgery. It matters not. The “Donation of Adrian” was subsequently recognised in many official writings. For example, in 1318, Domhnall O’Neill, along with other Irish kings, appealed to Pope John XXII in an attempt to overthrow Laudabiliter, a copy of which they enclosed. The Pope simply wrote to King Edward II of England urging him to redress some of the grievances of the Irish.

The Irish Rebellion of 1641, a result of anger at plantation and subjugation, gave rise to the Irish Catholic Confederation, which pledged its allegiance to the Royalists in the English Civil War. This is what brought Cromwell to Ireland, and though he was brutal (vicious, really) in his campaign, he was not the first military leader to massacre innocents, and exacerbate famine in Ireland. Robert the Bruce, and his brother Edward, who was proclaimed High King of Ireland in 1315, invaded the North and engaged in total war with the Anglo-Irish, slaughtering all of the inhabitants of Dundalk, for example.

Maurice Fitzgerald, who led one of the Cambro-Norman families which accompanied Strongbow in his invasion of Ireland, founded a famous dynasty in Kildare. The Fitzgeralds, like many of the Old English, eventually became “more Irish than the Irish themselves,” Hiberniores Hibernis ipsis. In fact, two descendants, separated by more than two-hundred years, would lead the Irish in rebellion against the crown: “Silken” Thomas Fitzgerald, in 1534, and Lord Edward Fitzgerald, in 1798. Such are the vagaries of history.

I like to remind Nationalists and Unionists alike that, during the 1680s, Pope Alexander VIII supported William of Orange, the Protestant usurper, in his battle for the English Crown, against the legitimate (though Catholic) King James II. The Orange Order, which refuses Catholic members, should make an honourary exception for the Pope. The Catholic Church, not for the first time in history, placed its own interests to the fore, as a member of the Grand Alliance, the League of Augsburg. The Battle of the Boyne in 1690 more or less decided the outcome of this conflict in favour of William.

This “Glorious Revolution,” so-called, is often celebrated as a victory for the liberal co-regency of William and Mary, over the authoritarian regime of James II. Edmund Burke thought of it as a final settlement and as freedom in full fruition. James was indeed an advocate for absolutist monarchy and a believer in the Divine Right of Kings.

However, it was James who made the declaration of indulgence, otherwise known as liberty of conscience, in 1687, a first step towards the freedom of religion. Indeed, the Patriot Parliament, which met in Dublin for the first and only time in 1689, granted full freedom of worship and civic and political equality for Roman Catholics and Dissenters. And yet, the indulgence also reaffirmed the king as absolute, so these pronouncements depended on the will of the monarch. (They were also made with a view to reinforcing support for his reign amongst Catholics and Dissenters.)

The founding members of the United Irishmen, the fons et origo of Irish republicanism, were all Protestant. This was an astonishing development. In the wake of the American and French revolutions, the Protestant planters, who had been brought to Ireland to pacify the country and bring it under English control, were now making common cause with the Gaelic and Old English Catholics to throw off the yoke of external domination. Wolfe Tone would state his aims boldly:

To subvert the tyranny of our execrable government, to break the connection with England, the never failing source of all our political evils, and to assert the independence of my country – these were my objects. To unite the whole people of Ireland, to abolish the memory of all past dissentions, and to substitute the common name of Irishman, in the place of the denominations of Protestant, Catholic, and Dissenter – these were my means.

In the aftermath of the 1798 rebellion, Catholics supported the Act of Union, because they believed that Catholic emancipation would be more easily achieved through Westminster than through College Green.

Daniel O’Connell, a native speaker of Irish, was utilitarian enough to “witness without a sigh the gradual disuse” of the language. Rather surprisingly, it was not the Duke of Wellington who said that being born in a stable — Ireland — does not make one a horse, it was the Liberator, speaking about the Duke, at trial in 1843.

O’Connell desired Catholic emancipation, of course, and the re-establishment of the Irish Parliament, but he wasn’t a separatist. In fact, he actually coined, or at the very least popularised, the term “West Brit,” then understood in a wholly positive sense. Here he is speaking in the House of Commons in 1832:

The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the Empire, provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone; they are ready to become a kind of West Britons if made so in benefits and in justice; but if not, we are Irishmen again.

O’Connell, who witnessed the beginning of la terreur in France, believed in peaceful agitation for change, “moral force” nationalism, and wholeheartedly rejected violence. “Let our agitation be peaceful,” he said, “legal, and constitutional.”

The principle of my political life…is that all ameliorations and improvements in political institutions can be obtained by persevering in a perfectly peaceable and legal course, and cannot be obtained by forcible means, or if they could be got by forcible means, such means create more evils than they cure, and leave the country worse than they found it.

In his non-violence he would be an example to Gandhi and to Martin Luther King, but not to the rebels of 1916. Strangely, though, you can find Robert Emmet’s blunderbuss in O’Connell’s home in Derrynane.

Two UK prime ministers were born and raised on the island of Ireland, part of the Protestant ascendancy: William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelbourne (1782-1783) and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1828-1830). These men also share the distinction of being the only two prime ministers who were also army generals. Wellington is not well-remembered in Ireland, because he was a staunch unionist and opposed to parliamentary reform (the reason Lord Byron called him Villainton), but he was Prime Minister during the passage of the 1829 Catholic Relief Act, and it would not have passed without his forthright support. The Wellington Testimonial in the Phoenix Park celebrates, somewhat amusingly, his encouragement of religious and civil liberty.

Irish soldiers fought with the British Army in almost every battle in the Empire’s history, including a large contingent in the Napoleonic wars alongside Wellington and, of course, in the Great War. At least 200,000 Irish soldiers fought in the First World War, all of them volunteers. Conscription for Ireland was eventually passed in 1918, but never enforced. The history of the British Empire is also our history, whether we like it or not. In fact, many of the troops who battled with the rebels in 1916 were fellow Irishmen, particularly from the Royal Dublin Fusiliers.

Ireland being an integral part of the Empire meant, for example, that the bugle used to sound the Charge of the Light Brigade at the famous Battle of Balaclava in 1854 was made in Dublin, at McNeill’s on Capel Street, and sounded by a Dubliner, Billy Brittain. It meant too that Winston Churchill’s “first coherent memory” is of cavalry on parade in the Phoenix Park in Dublin, when his grandfather, the Duke of Marlborough, was Viceroy. (Speaking of historical myths: it’s actually Lord Kitchener, as Secretary of War, and not Churchill, who bears most responsibility for the disaster which was the campaign in Gallipoli. He was the chief advocate for a naval attack in the first place and for a subsequent landing of ground troops.)

The Ulster unionists, latter-day proponents of democracy, law, and order, would do well to remember that it was their forebears who first introduced the gun into Irish politics in the 20th century, with the Larne gun-running in 1914. These were German guns for the Ulster Volunteer Force, who were determined to oppose Home Rule, the democratic will of the majority, by any means necessary.

The Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), the majority nationalist party at Westminster, was opposed to partition, but acquiesced in the creation of Northern Ireland as a stop-gap in securing Home Rule for Ireland, which was delayed until after the First World War. John Morley, previously Chief Secretary for Ireland, wrote to Asquith in 1914 very wisely telling him that his special plan for Ulster “would not work,” because “there is a strong Catholic minority, and the effect would be to reproduce in Ulster, with a reversal of the political conditions, the very antagonisms that you now hope to relieve.” The creation of “a Protestant Government for a Protestant people” in Northern Ireland would lead directly to the so-called Troubles, in which Catholics were thwarted in their pursuit of basic civil rights.

The 1916 Rising was organised while Home Rule was on the statute books. The best defense of this action was probably given by Roger Casement, the campaigning British consul who had exposed the human rights abuses in the Congo and Peru, at his trial in 1916 before he was hanged for treason:

If small nationalities were to be the pawns in this game of embattled giants [the Great War], I saw no reason why Ireland should shed her blood in any cause but her own, and if that be treason beyond the seas I am not ashamed to avow it or to answer for it here with my life.

Tom Clarke, the mastermind of the Rising, had been arrested in London in 1883, found in possession of large quantities of nitroglycerin, intent on bombing London Bridge, the busiest part of the city.

Arthur Griffith, the founder of Sinn Féin, had suggested the formation of a dual monarchy, in emulation of Hungary’s settlement with Austria, essentially a return to the constitution of 1782, prior to the union of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, and he had opposed all physical force nationalism in favour of passive resistance and abstentionism.

Patrick Pearse talked in the language of race theory, and welcomed the spilling of blood in the world war: “the old heart of the earth needed to be warmed with the red wine of the battlefields.” One might dismiss this as representative of the militarism of the age, but there were many who completely disagreed. James Connolly condemned this sentiment as belonging to that of a “blithering idiot.” Indeed, Pearse was “half-cracked,” according to Yeats, and a man “made dangerous by the Vertigo of Self Sacrifice.”

It must also be remembered, though, that John Redmond also called for a blood sacrifice, in encouraging the Irish Volunteers to join the war effort on the continent: “No people can be said to have rightly proved their nationhood and their power to maintain it until they have demonstrated their military prowess.”

Independence finally came in 1922, with the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the formation of the Free State. The Dáil ratified the Treaty, and the 1922 general election was a de facto referendum resulting in a clear majority in favour of the Treaty. The anti-Treaty republicans rejected this result, and brought the country to civil war. This anti-democratic element of republicanism is discussed not nearly enough.

Was the Treaty a worthy intermediate, a legitimate stepping stone to full independence? or was it a simple betrayal of the Republic? If you believe it was for the Irish people to decide, the Treaty was their choice. If, however, you believe that the Republic itself takes precedence over the voice of the people, then the fight would go on. Margaret Pearse rubbished the Treaty because she was haunted by the “ghosts of her sons.” In the end, the Republic was declared in 1949, not through force of arms, but through legislation.

In retrospect, the old unionist concern that Home Rule meant Rome Rule wasn’t entirely unfounded. Our constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann, which was written in 1937, defined the state as explicitly secular, and, remarkably, provided recognition to the “Jewish congregations,” then under increasing attack in Europe. Nevertheless, the Catholic Church had inordinate influence on social policy. This would drive a wedge into the midst of the nation, to paraphrase W. B. Yeats. A 1925 prohibition on divorce prompted Yeats, then a senator in Seanad Éireann, to give an impressive speech.

I think it is tragic that within three years of this country gaining its independence we should be discussing a measure which a minority of this nation considers to be grossly oppressive.

Ironically, in the office of the ultra-Catholic Patrick Pearse at St. Enda’s in Rathfarnham sits a bust of the poet John Milton. It was Milton who had written so powerfully in favour of divorce in the 17th century, and Yeats invokes his name in support of the rights of the Protestant people.

The prohibition went ahead anyway, having a predictable effect on progressive society: in 1951, for example, the state rejected the donation of a painting from Louis le Brocquy, Ireland’s foremost artist. A Family was a pessimistic depiction which he painted while going through a public divorce in the UK.

Yeats predicted that the ban would eventually be removed. “There is no use quarreling with icebergs in warm water,” he said. “I have no doubt whatever that, when the iceberg melts [Ireland] will become an exceedingly tolerant country.” The iceberg finally melted in 1995, when divorce was legalised, by the smallest of margins, through popular referendum.

In the 1950s, in the wake of the failure of the “controversial” Mother and Child Scheme, which witnessed overt interference from the Catholic Church in the affairs of a supposedly secular state, and following the resignation of the courageous Dr. Noel Browne, then Minister of Health, Taoiseach John A. Costello was bold enough to state:

I am an Irishman second, I am Catholic first, and I accept without qualification in all respects the teaching of the hierarchy and the church to which I belong.

Is it really any wonder that Catholics were viewed with suspicion by protestants in the UK and elsewhere? Indeed, Martin Luther King Sr., a Baptist pastor and the father of the great civil rights leader, could not bring himself to support John F. Kennedy in the presidential race of 1960 solely because he was a Catholic. Kennedy eventually settled this matter once and for all in a brilliant speech to an antagonistic audience, all members of the Protestant Greater Houston Ministerial Association. He said, in essence, the complete opposite to John A. Costello.

In the 1960s, the provisional IRA gained a foothold providing protection to the Catholic community in the North who were agitating for basic civil rights. They abandoned their moral high-ground, though, by exploding bombs and killing civilians. In 1885, the Fenians had simultaneously bombed the Tower of London and the House of Commons; in 1974, the provisional IRA did the exact same thing. Again echoing history, their goal of a united republic was never achieved. The old IRA had fought for a Republic but settled for a Free State, the provisional IRA fought for a Republic but settled for a Power Sharing Executive.

The Irish History Reader, reflecting on the divisions of the past, encourages its students to “avoid dissension, and shun all that might tend to create disunion.” I would suggest the opposite, we are a diverse nation of contradictions. There’s room for all points of view. We should give oxygen to all traces of disagreement, welcome any tentative hints of polarisation. After all, friction creates heat and heat produces light.

#myths

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stevefinnellp-blog · 5 years

Text

Origin and History of Catholicism [Part II]by Moisés Pinedo

[EDITOR'S NOTE: To read Part I of this article, click

HERE

For catalog, samples, or further information, contact:

Apologetics Press

230 Landmark Drive

Montgomery, Alabama 36117

U.S.A.

Phone (334) 272-8558

http://www.apologeticspress.org

0 notes