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twoidiotwriters1 · 3 months

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The Curse of Oenone (Leo Valdez xFem!Oc)

A/N: I'll be honest with you sometimes I hate this fic bc it makes me sad and I can't skip reading it bc I'm the one writing it -Danny Words: 2,129 Series' Masterlist Previous Chapter // Next Chapter Listen to: 'Kid Kingdoms (Acoustic)' -by Surfaces

XII: Weird Flex but Okay

They walk into a gift shop where Frank gets a stash of new shirts—he had to leave New Rome in a hurry, after all—and Percy calls Ara to a corner of the shop.

"Look at this." There is a rack of kids' backpacks just like her T-Rex, except these are all sea creatures.

"That's you," Ara points at a jellyfish at the top, its eyes are mismatched and half of its head is pushed in.

As they make their way out, Ara spots a shark-shaped hat and grabs it. When Percy catches up with her and sees what she's holding, he raises a brow. She puts the hat on. "Leo collects hats."

"Hats?"

"Weird hats," she clarifies.

Percy stares at it. "Weird hats for a weird guy. Makes sense."

Kate holds a light conversation with them, casually mentioning she's Phorcys's sister, so apparently, the nerd-looking girl is an ancient goddess, and Ara, the daughter of Olympus, is wearing a shark-shaped hat in her presence.

Percy keeps glancing at the exhibitions as if waiting for something to jump out of them. Ara's never seen him this worried while surrounded by water. When they reach the back of the Aquarium, they notice is packed with mythical creatures.

"This isn't right," Percy speaks under his breath.

The animals look malnourished and groggy like they're sedated. There are two Nereids in one of the tanks, and they don't even look up from their game when Percy walks by, which is alarming, cause all the Nereids love Percy.

"How can you keep them here?" Her brother asks Kate with anger.

"I know." She sighs with disappointment. "They aren't very interesting. We tried to teach them some tricks, but with no luck, I'm afraid. I think you'll like this tank over here much better."

"Holy mother of goats!" Hedge exclaims. "Look at these beauties!"

Ara turns the corner and stops. Her feet backtrack until she crashes against her brother and she points at the tank with a shaky hand. "Percy..."

"Are those—?"

"Telkhines?" Kate beams. "Yes! The only ones in captivity."

"But they fought for Kronos in the last war! They're dangerous!" Percy pulls Ara behind him.

"Well, we couldn't call it 'Death in the Deep Seas' if these exhibits weren't dangerous. Don't worry. We keep them well sedated."

"Sedated? Is that legal?" Frank asks.

"I don't think anything about this place is legal," Ara mumbles.

Percy keeps a hand on her shoulder for the rest of their walk to make sure she stays close, and just this once, Ara lets him. This place is freaking her out, it's quiet and dark and full of monsters.

"Hello!" A man appears out of a dark corner. Ara yelps and Percy yanks her back. To put it in the vaguest, most generous description she can think of, the guy looks like a humanoid crab. "Visitors!" Each word is blasted out of the speakers around them. "Welcome to Phorcys's Follies!"

"Do you think it gets old with time?" I ask Percy.

We've been doing our homework in the living room, and I'm getting pretty bored.

"What thing?"

"Fighting monsters," I explain, rolling my eraser across the table. "Do you think it stops being thrilling as you get older?"

"It's getting pretty old already," he huffs, eyeing his pen with a scowl.

Percy's had to do most of the fighting so far. I get why he says that, but I roll my eyes anyway. "Well, I hope never to get bored of it like with school."

He snorts. "Why do you like going on quests? We're always getting hurt, you're always almost dying."

I laugh. "I can't snub on the cool stuff that happens to me, but I am sorry that most happen at your expense. If I could, I would change things to be the one protecting you, because I like fighting."

Percy nudges my side. "Now that you're learning to fight, we'll do it together. We'll protect each other, right?"

I smile. "Yeah."

"—THE MAP IN CHARLESTON," Frank startles her.

"But enough boring educational stuff! You've paid for the VIP treatment. Won't you please let me finish the tour? The three denarii entrance fee is nonrefundable, you know."

"Afterward, can we ask questions?" Percy inquires.

"Of course! I'll tell you everything you need to know." Phorcys claps and a new tunnel opens ahead of them. "Walk this way!"

Frank leans closer and whispers as he mimics the god's posture. "Do we have to—?"

"It's just a figure of speech, man," Percy replies. "Come on."

"Hang on," Ara looks around. "Where's Hedge?"

Frank and Percy look at her. Her brother answers to her question. "He left with Keto, about two minutes ago." She stares at him blankly. Percy rolls his eyes. "You spaced out, didn't you?"

Ara shrugs and resumes her walk. "Gods talk too much, I can't help it..."

"The Greatest hero of our generation, everyone," her brother taunts her.

They walk until they reach a new empty tank. Phorcys stands in front of it proudly. "Beautiful exhibit, isn't it?"

"What do you keep in here?" Frank asks. "Giant killer goldfish?"

"Oh, that would be good! But, no, Frank Zhang, descendant of Poseidon. This tank is not for goldfish."

Frank backtracks when the god addresses him directly. Percy moves forward. "How do you know Frank's last name? How do you know he's descended from Poseidon?"

"Well... It was probably in the descriptions Gaea provided. You know, for the bounty, Percy Jackson."

Percy draws out his sword and points it at the small god. "Don't double-cross me, Phorcys. You promised me answers."

"After the VIP treatment, yes," the god agreed. "I promised to tell you everything you need to know. The thing is, however, you don't really need to know anything. You see, even if you made it to Rome, which is quite unlikely, you'd never defeat my giant brothers without a god fighting at your side. And what god would help you? So I have a better plan. You're not leaving. You're VIPs—Very Important Prisoners!"

The god vanishes faster than they can attack him, his voice echoes from the speakers surrounding them.

"You see, Mother never trusted me with big assignments, but she did agree that I could keep anything I caught. You two will make an excellent exhibit—the only demigod spawn of Poseidon in captivity—and the daughter of Olympus to fight them every day! 'Demigod Terrors'—yes, I like that! We already have sponsorship lined up with Bargain Mart. You can fight each other every day at eleven AM and one PM, with an evening show at seven PM."

"You're crazy!" Frank screams.

"Don't sell yourself short!" Phorcys replies happily. "You'll be our biggest draw!"

Ara hears a loud thud and turns to see Frank crashing against an invisible wall sealing the exit. Percy's hand is against the tank's glass and she can see the outline sinking into it, which means soon they'll be swimming.

"We won't cooperate, Phorcys!" He shouts.

"Oh, I'm optimistic! If you won't fight each other at first, no problem! I can send in fresh sea monsters every day. After you get used to the food here, you'll be properly sedated and will follow directions. Believe me, you'll come to love your new home."

The crystal begins to crack. Percy can help Ara breathe but it would take some of his power away and eventually drain him, meaning she'd die. She spots a treasure chest from which bubbles are constantly coming out and feels slightly relieved, that's a good source of oxygen.

"I'm the son of Poseidon!" Percy claims. "You can't imprison me in water. This is where I'm strongest."

"What a coincidence! It's also where I'm strongest," the god chortles. "This tank is specially designed to contain demigods. Now, have fun, you three. I'll see you at feeding time!"

"Percy!"

Her brother grabs her just in time before the glass shatters. The first thing she notices is that Percy's holding his breath, he holds her unmoving, and Ara slaps his cheek lightly to help him react.

"Hey!" It sounds like she's talking inside a box, but the boy snaps his eyes open and takes a sudden breath. Ara stares at him worryingly. "You okay?"

"Frank," he replies, holding Ara to keep her breathing and then turning around to look for the boy.

Ara pokes his shoulder and points up. "There."

Percy scowls at the giant Koi fish above them. Judging by his microexpressions, he's talking fish with Frank. Just another Tuesday for them.

Percy shakes his head. "Frank's stuck as a Koi fish. Any ideas?"

Ara looks around the tank. She swims up—taking Percy with her—and touches the celestial bronze at the top. She closes her eyes and concentrates, starting to glow orange.

"The glass can stand low and medium force impacts, which is what we can generate underwater—at least Frank and I. But Phorcys thought of you as well, installed propulsors inside the tank that force the water to flow in separate directions at all times. Must be reinforced with magic so you can't rig it..."

She swims back down, pressing one hand against the glass, then seizes her T-Rex and opens it, fishing out a water bomb.

"We need something to optimize our strength, or get someone to hit it from outside at the same time we do. The glass wouldn't flex correctly and it'd crack, we could target the weak spots with Riptide and Almighty afterward."

Percy stares at her for a moment before replying. "So... in short?"

Ara places the bomb in his free hand. "Well, do you see anyone outsi..."

Her question is left unfinished when Hedge and Keto enter the amphitheater facing them. Ara and Percy share a look and realize they're thinking the same thing.

"Get his attention." She orders.

The girl drops Percy's hand, immediately feeling the pressure and coldness of the water around her. She holds her breath and swims towards the treasure chest. In the meantime, Percy grabs one of the giant marbles that they've got lying at the bottom of the tank.

Ara dismantles the treasure chest so she can reach the plastic tube, she tugs it out and then takes a deep breath from it. Now she has an unlimited source of oxygen. She turns to see Hedge holding a conversation with Percy via wild gesturing.

Ara swims taking the tube with her, the currents making it harder to move since her cloak keeps dragging her around... Her cloak! She can clock in on another blessing, this feels like the right time to pray.

Percy points at the glass and then lifts three fingers. Ara takes another breath from the plastic tube and then takes the water bomb from Percy and presses it onto the tube's end. She prays as she lifts it above her head with both hands.

Her body lights up a teal color. Ara's stomach sinks weirdly, she activates the bomb and lets go of it so the air from the tube throws it further away, the water swirls around them all in the same direction.

Percy smashes a marble against the glass and Frank—now human—pushes his whole body against it at the same time that Hedge kicks the crystal.

Several cracks spread across the surface and Ara locks eyes with her brother, knowing exactly what's next. She can feel the pressure building and pushing them against the glass, and so they press their hands against the cracks and force the water to escape through them at such speed that the wall explodes at once.

All the cuts she gets heal by the time she's back on her feet. She picks up her T-Rex, soaking wet and with the stuffing coming out. She spots the shark hat a few feet away and picks it up, coughing and trembling.

"Pan's pipes, Jacksons!" Hedge coughs. "What were you doing in there?"

Percy grabs him by the neck and starts running. "Phorcys! Trap! Run!"

Alarms blast around them. Percy glances at the trapped creatures with concern but Ara urges him forward. "Later, Percy! Don't stop!"

Phorcys voice booms out of every speaker. "Jackson!"

They don't know to which Jackson he's yelling, but it doesn't matter much. Phorcys must be desperate to activate some other trap because all kinds of special effects are happening around them. Ara catches her reflection in one of the tanks, the shark-shaped hat neatly placed on her head.

"Ha!" A sudden surge of adrenaline runs through her, Poseidon's blessing doing its job.

Percy looks at her, he gives her a hesitant smile at first that turns into peels of laughter as they keep running. For just one moment, it feels like they're kids again, exactly like the old times.

Ara spots a fire alarm and triggers it, causing panic among the visitors. She yells out confusing instructions so they run in every direction, distracting the staff so they don't go looking for them. She's not sure all the workers are monsters, but she won't leave it up to fate, they love messing with her and her brother.

They leave the Aquarium in one piece, but they continue to run, Percy and Ara laughing all the way to the Argo II.

Next Chapter –>

Taglist.

@siriuslysirius1107 @ask-giggles1303 @asnyox-the-hoarder @im-planning-something-look @bandshirts-andbooks @coolninjapaper @thewaterlily @whenisthefall @1randomcomic @you-bloody-shank @sunflowergraves @owlalex44 @taylordaughter @typicalsolangelolover @writingmia @espressopatronum454 @slytherinnqueen @orbitingpolaris @obxstiles @ellipsisspelled @thepixiechicks

#twoidiots writing #leo valdez x oc #percy jackson and the olympians #heroes of olympus #leo valdez fanfic #doo

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jeannereames · 1 year

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Cut the Old Queers Some Slack

This post brought to you by a review of Sandra Boehringer’s Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome, which recent translation I posted about earlier with no little excitement. The BMCR review annoyed me for a couple reasons.

First was an assumption that when a book is translated, the author should retool it to modern terminology.* In the end, the reviewer said maybe just the forward from Boehringer should have addressed trans issues—which isn’t an invalid point—but other parts of the review seem to slam Boehringer for not doing more revisions for the new English translation (from a French original published in 2007). This leads me to….

Second issue: this assumes a uniquely Angliphone understanding, and even more, a British one (the reviewer teaches at Leeds), where the issue of TERFs is more pressing than in the US. Here, transphobia and transmisogyny is rooted more in religious objections than a subsect of radical feminists (who may not be religious at all). It’s not that the US has no TERFs, but it's not nearly the issue (ime) as in the UK.

Every country has its own quirks of bias. And the author is French. If I’ve learned anything about Queer culture in my almost 60 years on this planet, it’s that the pressing issues in one country are manifestly not the pressing issues in another—particularly across language lines. To assume they are (or should be) centers Angliphone culture in a way that annoys me.

OTOH, yes, especially US English-speakers have poor linguistic skills to read non-Anglophone scholarship as a result of bad public-school language education. But access to good language education is a matter of MONEY, which gets us into issues of social class, et al. That’s a different kettle of fish (which deserves its own post about wealth gate-keeping in academia).

But I do my best to remain cognizant that the ways we talk about queer culture and concerns differ even in Anglophone countries, never mind those of non-English speakers.

So that was my second big issue with this review.

The reviewer acknowledges that the original came out in 2007, and queer scholarship about the ancient world has moved on, particularly as regards recognition of non-binary ancient figures. But she can’t seem to keep from knocking Boehringer for not magically keeping up.

Folks, grant the Old Queers some slack here? When I was young, it was just LGB. Then LGBT. Now it’s an alphabet soup. I’m quite sure young queers who read “An Atypical Affair: Alexander the Great, Hephaistion Amyntoros, and the Nature of Their Relationship,” could take exception to my phrasing in places. Hell, I’ll revise portions of it for my bio on Hephaistion and Krateros.

But it was published in 1999! And I actually wrote the thing in 1996 as a class assignment, then revised it in 1998 for that 1999 publication date.

Remember, some of us have been in this fight a while. I do my best to keep up with current terminology—and do genuinely want to do so—but it’s kinda gauche to slam authors for material previously published, especially in such a rapidly changing field.

To expect an author to substantially retool a prior publication for a translation is uncool. Real revision takes a lot of time. Not something I think many people fully understand. It’s not a matter of a couple weeks’ tweaks. If she were to produce a revised/second edition, that might take years. I’d rather have the book translated than wait five years for Boehringer to revise it. I can take it in the spirit of its original publication date: 2007. Could she have been more straightforward in her new forward? Perhaps. But French concerns aren’t British ones.

——

*Let me also say—as someone whose work is currently being translated—we may not have as much control as readers assume. I sent a letter to the Italian publisher, all but begging them to PLEASE keep the Greek transliterations of names and Greek words with Dancing with the Lion. They said they would, but I can’t force them to do so. For all I know, the Italian translation could be a dumpster fire. I hope not, I trust not, but translations are dicey. And if academic translations are quite different from fiction, be aware of the limits original authors face with translations.

#Female homosexuality in antiquity #The problem with reviews #Classics #BMCR #ancient history #ancient sexuality

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theromaboo · 2 months

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If you guys want to know an example of why I think the article that got me into ancient Rome is bad, here's an example.

Julius Caesar was not an emperor. He was granted the title of dictator, but a possible neurological problem may have prevented him from receiving the crown. His explanation for not attending the coronation was that “his senses do not remain steady’’ and he was ‘’speedily shaken and whirled about’’, resulting in ‘’giddiness’’ and “insensibility". The description may represent a focal epileptic seizure with alterations of perception. Shakespeare’s version of this fact is much more dramatic.

From "Searching for neurological diseases in the Julio-Claudian dynasty of the Roman Empire"

I think citing Plutarch here is doing a disservice to Plutarch.

They seem to have confused together two stories from Plutarch 60 and 61, and then added a coronation that apparently Caesar failed to attend?

The authors aren't native English speakers, so probably what they mean by coronation is different than what it makes me think. But it makes me think of an ancient Roman King Charles' Coronation for Julius Caesar and Julius Caesar just doesn't show up and that's why he never became a king.

#ancient rome #illnesses in the julio claudian dynasty #julio claudian dynasty

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pyramidmedia369 · 4 months

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The Unknown Origins of Christmas & Christianity

Original post: The Unknown Origins of Christmas & Christianity (pyramidmedia369.com)

There is a wide variety of artifacts below that detail the origins of the Christmas ritual. The information below will be quite alarming, because it can cause deep confusion depending on where you stand in your spiritual journey. There's a lot to uncover here. I'm only here to make you think. Lets get to it.

We will address the following:

Christ-Mass

Saturnalia

Saturn Worship

ACTS 14:12 + GENESIS 11:5-9 in the Bible

Who is Nimrod?

How does Nimrod tie to the story of Christ?

The original Virgin Mary story

The Winter Solstice

Christ-Mass & the start of Christianity

The word "Christmas" is a derivative of "Christ-Mass". With Mass being a common practice in Roman Catholicism, having a nature specific to certain dates for more than just astrological reasons. The roots of Christmas were first planted in ancient Rome with Saturnalia: the original ritual of Christmas. In 336 AD, Pope Julius I decided to call December 25th "Christ-Mass", in an effort to adopt and absorb the traditions of the pagan Saturnalia festival. This is just 11 years after the beginning of Christianity, which started in 325 AD by Constantine The Great at the Council of Nicea. At the CON, Constantine stated that religious peace could only occur if a single religion is imposed throughout the empire, therefore no one could leave the empire until they agreed on a Universal interpretation for Christianity. There were only 5 priests who disagreed with him. Therefore, the bible doctrine we read today was subjugated by votes. Meaning, the stories/scriptures they would or would not include in the bible had to be voted for by the Council of Nicea. Which is why 75 books were removed from the bible as Christianity was created.

I wonder, why didn't Christianity evolve as its own semitic denomination? Yeshua (Jesus) was a Jew from the tribe of Judah by lineage, and the New Testament states his crucifixion was ordered by the Roman Catholic church. Why is Christianity a denomination of Catholicism, and not Hebrew customs? Weird.

Saturnalia

Saturnalia was originally a celebration of the god 'Saturn', which would last from December 17th through December 25th. I do recommend that you research the nature of these festivals on your own. Before it was Jesus Christ's birthday, it was Nimrod's birthday and was widely celebrated similar to the way we celebrate Christmas. To the Romans, Nimrod was called Saturn; the Greeks called him Kronos; the Egyptians called him Osiris; the Phoenicians and Canaanites called him Baal. Interesting, isn't it?

Saturn Worship

It's not just ancient Romania; Saturn does play an important role in our spiritual evolution for many different reasons. For starters, Saturn is associated as the Lord of Karma and Time. Honoring Saturn is not merely just a pagan practice, hence why the Hebrew Sabbath day is on Saturday, the day of Saturn. If you look up any Pre-Copernicus astrological facts, you will find that Saturn is revered as the highest heaven of all the planetary bodies. Yes, each planet is considered not just a god/goddess, but also a heaven and dimension. The energetic nature of these planets are described through the personification of said deities.

You can learn more about how the roles the planets played in the ancient pantheons of spirituality and astrology here: "How The Days Got Their Names?"

Saturnalia is an ancient Greco-Roman festival, which also explains why the Bible stories include characters/gods from Greek-Roman pantheon. For example..

'Acts 14:12' in the Bible

King James Version:

"And they called Barnabas, Jupiter; and Paul, Mercurius, because he was the chief speaker."

New International Version:

"Barabas, they called Zeus, and Paul they called Hermes because he was the chief speaker."

Mercury is the planet of communication, while Jupiter is the planet of rulership. Barnabus and Paul were appointed these names because of the social role they were playing among their tribe and society. This means that at a point in time, astrology was highly implemented by the progenitors of these said religions.

Who is Nimrod?

Nimrod is a son of Cush, grandson of Ham and great grandson of Noah. "He was a mighty hunter before (against) the Lord" - Genisis 10:9. He was rebellious to the God of the bible, YHWH/ENLIL. Nimrod was the architect and main builder of the Tower of Babel. In Sumerian language, this tower is called Etemenanki, "the stairway between heaven and earth". The purpose of this tower was initially built in dedication to Enlil's brother, ENKI, to go high enough to see the gods. It was built in a spot the Babylonians believed was the very center of our Universe. Rome, which is just Babylon in a different time, was the original city of Saturn.

During the construction of the Tower of Babylon, the peoples of the earth remained undivided, with one language and culture. But this was against God's orders. Read Genesis 11:5-9, where it describes how God made the builders scatter and divided their languages and kept them from being able to understand one another. This led to the final destruction of the tower.

How does Nimrod tie to the story of Christ?

After Nimrod's death (c. 2167 BC), his wife Semiramis promoted the belief that he was a god. She claimed that she saw a full-grown evergreen tree spring out of the roots of a dead tree stump, symbolizing the springing forth of new life for Nimrod. On the anniversary of his birth, she said, Nimrod would visit the evergreen tree and leave gifts under it. His birthday fell on the winter solstice at the end of December. This is how the Christmas Tree tradition originated.

Traditionally, a yule log was burned in the fireplace on Christmas Eve and during the night as the log’s embers died, there appeared in the room, as if by magic, a Christmas tree surrounded by gifts. The yule log represented the sun-god Nimrod and the Christmas tree represented himself resurrected as his own son, Tammuz who is Horus/Heru. Remember, the names are different because of the languages used throughout different kingdoms.

This story can also be found in the Sumerian story, The Epic of Gilgamesh, who is also Nimrod, who is Horus, who is Heru, who is Hercules. This is where the word "HERO" comes from! Let's get back on topic now...

The original Virgin Mary story

Osiris's story is almost exactly the same, just a few details make it more of a different story in other cultures. Nimrod's story is only missing the details of how his wife Semiramis, who is Isis, was able to conceive this miracle child. This is how the concept of the Holy Trinity began.

Nimrod-Semiramis-Tammuz version:

"Nimrod's uncle Shem killed Nimrod and scattered his remains across the land. When his wife became pregnant five month's later, she proclaimed that she was made pregnant by the rays of the Sun, which was supposedly her husband Nimrod."

Osiris-Isis-Horus version:

"But one night Set, hunting by the light of the moon, found the chest, and, recognizing the body, tore it into fourteen pieces, which he scattered up and down throughout the land. When Isis heard of this, she took a boat and gathered the fragments of Osiris's body. Wherever she found one, there she built a tomb and pieced Osiris back together, who was then brought back to life. At this moment, Isis conceived Horus who later avenged Osiris's death."

The Winter Solstice

Ironically, the Sun cycle dies for 3 days. Its cycle is renewed, and the Sun begins to rise again on the 3rd day. Sound familiar? Throughout these 3 days, the Sun is at its lowest point out of a complete 365-day year. On December 25th, the Sun moves one degree northward and is symbolically born again!

"The New Testament stories are based on the initiation ceremonies and esoteric secrets including astrology and Sun worship that were performed and communicated in the Mystery schools of Sumer, Babylon, and Egypt. In modern times, they are performed in Freemasonry, Order of the Eastern Star, Rosicrucianism, Order of the Golden Dawn, Thule Society, etc. But they are presented as a literal story to fool the people; especially Christianity, Judaism and Islam." - David Icke

Conclusion:

So Nimrod's story is Osiris's story. Considering that Horus is an incarnation of Osiris, the Horus legend also belongs to Nimrod as well. I can see how the confusion begins for many of us. Because Nimrod was killed by his own uncle - and Horus sought revenge on his uncle Seth who killed his father, Osiris. I know you're like, "How did he kill the person that killed him?" LOL there's so many empty blanks to fill in!

The ancient story says Isis used the pyramid of Giza to draw Osiris's spirit down into his body once she put him back together, after being killed and dismembered by his brother Set. It is also said that the Egyptians used Orion's belt as a gateway aka portal to travel to Earth's dimension with the use of the Pyramid. These are the missing details in the other stories. I shall return!

Thank you for reading!

If you do not truly understand how the planets, ancient Gods, and humanity are all connected, please feel free to reach out to me and ask any questions you may have at [email protected]. I try to leave clues in my previous articles, but I understand information has to be organized based upon your questions and needs. - Phoenix Son

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potestmagice · 4 months

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@sugarspicesins || for Daenerys, set in season 1, episode 1 (this scene, or just after)

The TARDIS shook violently. Inside, the Professor was at the console, flicking switches like mad. He was trying to find an old family friend and his mentor, Rumplestiltskin. He had recently gone missing after he sacrificed himself to stop his evil father, Peter Pan, from destroying the town of Storybrooke. But something was odd about it. He didn’t exactly know what, but the Professor knew something was odd.

In an attempt to stabilise the TARDIS, he pressed the blue stabilisers. But when he did, a loud, shrieking noise came across the speakers in the room. Two more shrieks followed suit. Like some kind of message. Or worse: A warning. Going over to the monitor, he flicked a couple of switches, hoping the TARDIS could translate it for him – which it barely did. But it did manage to find three similar words. Winter is Coming.

The TARDIS came to a large thud and everything went black.

* * *

After his crash landing, the Professor woke up groggily. Getting up slowly, he exited his ship and into the city that awaited him. Looking around at the terracotta rooves and brick buildings, he thought he was in Ancient Greece. Or Ancient Rome.

Deciding to follow them, he hid behind a tree. Peeking out, he saw three people – two blondes and a brown-headed man – greet the savages. No … Not raids. An arranged marriage…

Watching the scene unfold, he hid behind the tree again once the savages took off again, and the blonde and brown-haired males went into the building again – leaving the blonde female just standing there. God, she's beautiful…

#sugarspicesins #☆ interactions ~ first professor

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cincinnatusvirtue · 5 months

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Countries that are no more: Ancient Carthage (814BC-146BC)

The state discussed in this post is one of the most famous and important in antiquity. Yet, it remains one of the most elusive and mysterious civilizations in world history because its own written records have been virtually erased with all contemporary written records coming from foreign sources that both praised and reviled its existence. However, it was influential for its model of government, its expansion of Mediterranean trade, its influence on models of economic production, naval exploration and for its military leaders whose tactical and strategic prowess influence warfare to the modern day and for its rivalry with the other emerging Mediterranean superpower of antiquity: Rome. A rivalry that is characterized as the quintessential clash of civilizations. This is Carthage.

Name: In its native language, the Phoenician dialect known in Latin as Punic, it was 𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕, or annunciated as qrt-ḥdšt or Qart-Hardasht. This translates into English as "New City". In Latin it was known as Carthago or Karthago, the modern English pronunciation of Carthage comes by way of French.

Language: Carthage as a city-state and its empire more broadly held a cosmopolitan mixture of peoples and languages. However, the founders of Carthage and its ruling elite spoke Punic, a dialect of Phoenician associated with the city of Carthage which was founded by Phoenician colonists from the Levant. Punic was Phoenician in origin and became a distinct local dialect of Phoenician speakers in Carthage and other cities. These settlers founded colonies throughout North Africa and the Western Mediterranean. The Phoenician language and its dialects were from the Semitic language family native to the Middle East. It originated as a distinct dialect of the Canaanite peoples from who the Phoenicians and subsequently the Carthaginians descend from. The Canaanites also gave rise to the other Semitic speaking peoples such as the Israelites, Moabites and Ammonites among others. Modern Hebrew is said to be the extant language most similar to ancient Punic. In Carthage's empire there were also local varieties of Berber (Amazigh) languages spoken by the native Berbers who settled in North Africa. There were also local languages in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) from the Iberian and Celtic tribes settled there and the languages of native Sardinian and Balearic peoples as well. Additionally, ancient Greek was spoken by Greek colonists, mercenaries and traders who also settled within Carthage's empire and sphere of influence.

Territory: The city of Carthage is located in the environs of modern Tunis, capital of the modern state of Tunisia in North Africa. It was from this centrally located city founded by Phoenician colonists that their subsequent empire grew. The established contact and control with other Phoenician colonies in the area such as nearby Utica and eventually grew to control all of coastal North Africa from modern Morocco to western Libya. The modern states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya were its core territory, with Tunisia being its heartland. It also included Malta, the western half of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica's coastal regions, the Balearic Islands of Spain and the southeastern portions of Iberia, particularly the coastal areas with influence into parts of the interior and south of the Ebro River.

Symbols & Mottos: The symbols associated with the state of Carthage are often in reference to their pantheon of gods which were quite extensive but centered mostly around the Phoenician gods but also included Berber, Iberian and Greek influences within their pantheon as well. A military standard associated with Carthage includes a staff with a sun disc and topped with a crescent moon. Also, the sign of Tanit, a Phoenician goddess's whose symbol was found on Carthaginian ruins along with Phoenician ruins found back in the Phoenician colonists' homeland in the Levant (Lebanon, Israel and Syria). The sign of Tanit appears in many varieties but is usually found as a schematic like sketch of a person with a triangular base with a disc on top with horizontal lines then pointing upwards like raised arms.

Religion: With Phoenician settlers being the originators of Carthage its ruling elite, the primary state religion was their variety of the ancient Phoenician religion which was polytheistic and included many notable gods and goddesses from Tanit to Baal Hammon, Melqart and Astarte among others. Many of these gods found companions with the Greeks and indeed due to the interfacing with Greeks both through trade and war, some Greek gods would also be incorporated into the Carthaginian pantheon, though it remained distinctly Punic at its core. There also appears to be Berber (Libyan and Numidian) influences along with Sardinian and Iberian interfacing that both saw the spread of worship of the Punic/Phoenician deities with local influences likewise being adopted by the Carthaginians. Even some ancient Egyptian gods appear to be included in Carthaginian worship. This syncretism and tolerance reflect the cosmopolitan outlook and composition the Carthaginians had within their realm.

There were priests who maintained the temples and sanctuaries devoted to particular deities. Likewise, Carthaginians practiced everything from ritual banquets to funerary rites such as those in the Levant like disposing of the remains of the dead, feasts for the dead, ancestor worship and goods in the tombs of the dead, indicating belief in life after death. Cemeteries were often built outside the walls of Punic settlements and included stelae with inscriptions serving as grave markers. Carthaginians practiced both burial and cremation.

There does appear to be cases of animal sacrifice to appease the gods in Carthaginian society as well. This tended to follow very specific regulations and rules.

The most controversial topic of the Punic religion however appears to be the practice of child sacrifice. The sources for this we must bear in mind come from Greco-Roman writers that weren't known to actually witness the practice and from civilizations that had biases toward Carthage more broadly. Yet both Greek and Roman sources cite the Carthaginians as practicing child sacrifice in their religion. These sources sometimes do contradict one another in their specifics. Modern historians debate the extent of this practice and what are the contents found at the sites known as Tophet in urns with ashes that may come from human infants. The Greco-Roman sources state children were specifically killed for ritual purposes and killed in various manners and burned as offerings. Based on archaeological findings some historians take the position that the practice may have occurred but may have been relegated to the ritual cremation of infants who died of natural causes. Others uphold the Greco-Roman sources and other deny the practice at all, chalking it up as pure invention of biased sources from Greece and Rome. Because Carthage was destroyed by Rome in 146 BC and virtually all extant written sources on Carthage come from Roman and Greek sources, there doesn't appear to be any definitive answer to this practice's purported extent or even its existence. Modern archaeology can lend more nuance to the topic but a clear answer like much of what we know about Carthage and its society remains a mystery.

Currency: The basic coinage of Carthage was called the shekel which derived from its Phoenician antecedents. There were gold, silver and bronze coins found throughout Carthage's empire. Mints were found not only in North Africa but Sicily and Iberia. Coins depicted everything from date palm trees to famous soldiers and politicians both Carthaginian in origin like the Barcid family of Hannibal Barca and even Greek rulers such as Alexander the Great.

Population: At its peak the empire had probably 3.7-4.3 million people. The city of Carthage proper at its peak was anywhere 250,000-500,000 people.

Government: The basis of our understanding of Carthage's governance is limited and largely based on ancient Greek and Roman sources. Some of which write of it in disparaging terms and others praise it for its complexity and nuance.

The basic understand is that during the first few centuries of Carthage's existence it was probably a monarchy. However, the extent to which the kings ruled over Carthage is debated. The Phoenician city states from which Carthage descended, namely Tyre had nominal monarchs but who deferred to a council of advisors who helped craft policy and administer the law. It seems reasonable that Carthage followed this political model in its earliest stages with nominal monarchs who likewise consulted a council of advisors made up Carthaginian nobility to craft and administer policy. The degree to which kings of Carthage held power probably fluctuated.

Following the First Sicilian War against the Greek colonists on Sicily in 480 BC, the nature of Carthage's government changed gradually with a weakening of the monarchy. By the 300s BC Carthage was at its peak and best characterized as an oligarchic republic. It was noted to have numerous checks and balances on the branches of government, a vast and complex administrative state, high levels of public accountability and participation in civic duty. Aristotle the famed Greek philosopher wrote on Carthage in his treatise "Politics" as the only non-Greek polity to be represented in the work.

Carthage as a republic became ruled nominally by two simultaneously elected non-hereditary magistrates called sufetes or shophets. This position's title translates as "judges" and they are said to handle a mix of judicial and executive powers. How they were elected and who was eligible for this head of state position is not known. What is known is they were always from the oligarchic ruling class of Carthage and that they held annual terms. The Roman writer Livy states this was comparable to the Roman republican practice of electing two consuls for annual terms. They are said to have ruled jointly and likewise handled matters of state through the convening and presiding over the supreme consultative council known as Adirim (similar to the Roman Senate), submitting legislation to the popular assembly and adjudicating trials. The sufetes interestingly did not hold any military power as this was separated and reserved for military commanders with the generals reporting to the Carthaginian assembly in the Adirim.

The Adirim held about 30 members on the council and like senators in Rome were elected from the wealthy elite merchant families of Carthage. They administered the treasury, conducted foreign affairs and providing some control over military affairs. It is said matters of state required unanimous decision making to go into effect.

Carthage also had judicial assembly called the One-Hundred and Four. These judges provided oversight of the military and other politicians and bureaucrats within Carthage. As an example of Carthage's political checks and balances, the One-Hundred and Four had the power administer monetary fines or even the death penalty, sometimes by crucifixion on military or government officials found to have engaged in unbecoming behavior that went against the interest of the public. It also formed small committees to provide oversight on political matters.

Separate from these bodies also came numerous junior bureaucratic positions to held administer everything from tax collection, public works and the state treasury.

Carthage also contained at local levels trade unions, a popular assembly and town meetings. In matters where the sufetes and Adirim could not decide law in a unanimous manner a popular assembly was consulted to make a final determination. Whether this was a formal institution or ad hoc solution has never been determined.

Aristotle singled out the Carthaginian government as more meritocratic than its contemporary Greek counterparts. He also praised its complex balance of monarchical, aristocratic and democratic elements. Some other Greek writers went so far as to say it was the best form of government in existence at that time only equaled in the Greek world by Sparta. Meanwhile, Aristotle himself stated that Carthage had some form of constitution and found it superior to Sparta's.

The Greek historian Polybius writing for a Greco-Roman audience in his commentary on the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage stated that Carthage had more democratic elements than Rome did and that the common people were on average given more say than Romans at the time. However, Polybius saw this as a detriment to Carthage during the Punic Wars, in his estimate too much bickering and infighting to gain a unanimous decision led to paralysis and indecision. Whereas he favored the Roman Senate's rules which were less democratic overall and therefore more decisive in determining important decisions at crucial moments such as in war.

Carthage's republican government appears to have been replicated in the colonies and territories throughout its empire with sufetes found at local colonial levels. There appears to be cooperation between Punic colonial officials and the local population under Carthaginian rule.

Carthage was primarily mercantile in its outlook. The control of trade commodities and goods throughout the Mediterranean was the basis for its economic development and always of primary concern. Hence the merchant class-oligarchy's vested interest in maintaining power.

Military: Carthage was a classic example of a maritime power. Its navy was its most important military branch in many ways. The navy was used to ensure control over the network of trade routes between the various parts of the Western and Central Mediterranean. It would win naval victories over its Greek and Roman rivals though it would ultimately face defeat by the Romans.

The navy was large in size for antiquity and benefitted from the Phoenician advent of serial production, the ancient equivalent of assembly line production which produced ships of good quality but in an efficient manner. They could maintain hundreds of ships at one time, even after their power dimmed with the rise of Rome.

The ethnic composition of the navy's sailors, oarsman, navigators and marine force was almost exclusively Phoenician. Given the Phoenicians long association with seafaring trade and navigation, the Carthaginians merely upheld this tradition including in warfare.

The army of Carthage, its land based military branch was also crucial in achieving its geopolitical goals. From the subjugation of rebellious tribes in North Africa and Iberia to battling the Greeks and Romans in foreign wars. In conjunction with the navy the ultimate goal was maintaining Carthage's control of trade routes and upholding its sphere of influence to maintain favorable conditions for said trade.

Due to the limited population of Phoenician colonists spread throughout the Carthaginian empire and given their traditional naval prowess, much of the army was not of ethnic Phoenician/Punic background. Instead, they relied on a multinational mix of auxiliaries and mercenaries to fill the armies ranks. There might be Phoenician officers and generals such as the famed Hannibal Barca and his relatives including his father Hamilcar and brothers Mago and Hasdrubal, but many other officers could be Greeks among others. The rank and file including Greek mercenaries fighting in the hoplite style, many Greek colonists from Sicily and Southern Italy, Berber infantry and cavalry, particular the light cavalry of Numidia famed for its fast-moving skirmishers armed with javelins and the Libyan infantry. Iberian infantry and cavalry of mixed Celtic and Iberian backgrounds. The famed light skirmisher infantry from the Balearic Islands who slung stones at their enemies were likewise part of the army. Also included in the army were Gallic (Celtic) infantry and cavalry from France and Italy, Sardinians (Nuragic) and Italic peoples such as Samnites, Lucanians, Etruscans and even some Latin peoples including Roman defectors could be found among Carthage's land army. The Phoenician rank and file in the army were usually colonists from other Punic settlements and not Carthage proper. The exception being the famed 3,000 strong Sacred Band of Carthage which were derived from the strongest and healthiest of Carthage's wealthiest families to fight as an elite special unit of the army. Armed and trained int the Greek hoplite style and phalanx formation.

The army also utilized African Forest elephants as a mobile force similar to a wrecking ball. These elephants provided a fearsome complement to the army and was famously used by Hannibal Barca in his crossing of the Alps to invade Roman Italy during the Second Punic War.

The major conflicts Carthage fought in its history were its colonial wars in North Africa against Berber tribes and kingdoms, Iberia and in Sicily first against the Greeks and later against its archrival Rome. The three Punic Wars fought between Carthage and Rome have been characterized by some historians as the ultimate and perhaps most important clash of civilizations in the ancient world and perhaps of all time. Ultimately, they would all end in Rome's favor and eventual destruction and razing of Carthage by Rome, ending Rome's biggest rival and leading to Roman supremacy over the Mediterranean basin for the next several centuries.

Economy: Economic concerns were of chief importance to the Carthaginians. Their empire was essentially a commercial one or rather an expansive and complex trade network with the state trying to aggressively uphold and expand its scope. Its origins lie with the Carthage's Phoenician roots. The Phoenicians based in the Levantine coast (mainly modern Lebanon, Israel and Syria) weren't one united people but rather a series of city states, with the most powerful being based on the coast. These included the cities of Byblos, Sidon and Tyre among the leading polities and all with an outward maritime trade orientation. The Phoenicians produced many goods and economic models that would be both enriching and influential on trade throughout the ancient world. This included purple dye for fabric, uncolored glass, wine production and Lebanese cedar for timber production and the serial production economic model.

Carthage was founded in modern Tunisia by Phoenician colonists from the city of Tyre (Lebanon) in the 9th century BC. They were not the first Phoenician colony in North Africa but they eventually rose to become the most aggressive and successful. In part this was due to its secure and strategic location. It soon became the leading trade center on the Western and Central Mediterranean. They controlled trade routes at sea and rose to prominence and domination among all the other Phoenician colonies setup in North Africa, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia and Iberia.

Mining for metals silver, lead, copper and tin were of crucial importance for the wealth of Carthage, in particular this motivated their expansion into Iberia. Additionally, the temperate and fertile climate of the Western Mediterranean lead to much wine production. They also traded in amber, timber, grains an food preservatives.

While mostly a maritime trade power, Carthage also had overland caravans to secure goods from the African interior and even the Middle East. Continual exploration for new and expanding trade routes and goods was also important for Carthage. Famed Carthaginian explorers of Punic origin included Himilco the Explorer who lived in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. He is said to have been the first Mediterranean sailor to have explored the Atlantic routes to Northwest Europe, visiting Portugal, France and the British Isles. Britain in particular was important to the ancient tin trade which was necessary in bronze production. Britain was known in the ancient world to the Carthaginians and Greeks as the Tin Isles.

Hanno the Navigator was said to have explore trade routes to western Africa. Reaching as far as modern Senegal and Cameroon,

Lifespan: Carthage was said to have been founded by Phoenician colonists from the city of Tyre circa the 9th century BC. A foundation legend raised from its founding. Namely the legend of Princess Dido from Tyre leading her fellow Phoenicians not as colonists looking for commercial benefits but political refuge from her dictator brother. According to legend Dido and her retinue arrived at Tunisia and tricked the local Berber king into grating them a sizable tract of land from which the core of what became the city of Carthage was founded.

The city was given the name by its settlers of Qart-Hadasht, which in the Phoenician language meant "New City". The year 814 BC is often cited as the approximate date of its founding.

Quickly Carthage made an association with and eventual domination of fellow Phoenician colonies in the area including Utica. Its favorable climate, arable land and strategic location were all crucial to Carthage's rapid growth and dominance of over other Phoenician colonies. It would expand to conquer lands ranging from the whole of North Africa from Morocco to Libya, the islands of Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearics and parts of the Iberian Peninsula over the coming centuries found themselves either under direct Carthaginian rule or favorable treaties incorporating the lands into its sphere of influence hence creating a trade network and empire, a classic example of a thalassocracy.

Initially, the Carthaginians paid a tribute and maintained contact to its mother city of Tyre back in Lebanon. However, this became an irregular occurrence due to Carthage's increasing independence due to its great distance from the Levant and the assertive character to its own local citizenry. Carthage began to see a mix of Phoenicians and local Berbers creating a unique Punic culture that synthesized the two cultures and ethnicities over time with the Phoenician dialect and culture remaining dominant but adaptable for its ability to incorporate other cultures. This was true as its sphere of influences expanded in the Mediterranean.

Carthage's independence was not only due to its relative distance from Tyre but due to the events back in Phoenicia. Various sieges from Babylonia and eventually later the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered Phoenicia including Tyre circa 530-522BC. The subjugation of these lands reduced contact between the Carthaginian settlers and their Tyrian origins which had until that date sent a steady flow of colonists. While some flow of other Phoenicians would continue, the population would be buttressed by local native populaces and other Phoenician colonies rather than direct Tyrian migration.

The city of Carthage itself expanded over the centuries and created several distinct districts and architecture. At its peak in the 4th century BC, it contained a population between a quarter and half a million people. making it one of the world's largest and most prosperous cities at the time. The city had a mix of wealthy villas, apartment blocks six stories high, had warehouse and commercial districts, goods markets, a Greek style agora or public space, elaborate gardens. temples to various gods, various government buildings and a unique double harbor known as the cothon, which became the physical feature along with the Byrsa hill most associated with Carthage. The cothon featured an outer commercial harbor and military inner harbor with ship warehouses on a man-made island from which ship repairs, construction and maintenance could be addressed through its serial production. The Byrsa hill was the central district of Carthage which contained important temples, it had stair way avenues which were relatively wide for traffic, whereas most of the city's routes had narrow winding paths to navigate. The city was said to have triple walls for defenses, a shorter outer wall made of either stone or wood, followed by a ditch, a second taller stone wall 5 meters thick, a second ditch and a third stone wall 10 meters thick and with armed towers able to hold a force of over 20,000 troops.

In 509 BC it signed its first treaty with Rome, its eventual rival which at the time was the inferior power still clamoring for power on the Italian peninsula. The treaty was meant to demarcate their respective spheres of influence. From 580-265 BC, the Carthaginians found themselves in a series of wars with the Greek colonies of Sicily and Southern Italy. Namely, the city state of Syracuse which was the principal Greek settlement on Sicily.

These wars were back and forth in nature, marked by victory and defeat on land and sea for both sides. Eventually Carthage would retain control over the western half of Sicily until its loss of control in the Punic Wars with Rome. The Sicilian Wars also saw the gradual weakening of the kings of Carthage and its transition to an oligarchic republic (see government section).

The Punic Wars (264-146 BC) began almost by accident with neither Rome nor Carthage initially planning a direct confrontation with the other. The city of Messana (Messina) in Sicily found itself in the 260s BC under the control of a group of Italian mercenaries who had previously served the tyrant (king) of Syracuse who had died in 280 BC. These independent mercenaries were a threat to both Carthage and Syracuse's interests on Sicily. These mercenaries named the Mamertimes (Sons of Mars) divided into two factions, over the issue of the new Syracuse tyrant Hiero II's planned retaking of Messana. One faction advocating a Carthaginian intervention to take charge of the city's security and the other advocating for Roman intervention from the Italian peninsula. Carthage arrived first with a land garrison and naval fleet in the harbor. The Roman Senate was reluctant to assist the mercenaries but recognized the potential threat a permanent presence of Carthaginians in Messana and its location on the narrow Straits of Messina between Sicily and Italian mainland could pose on Roman trade and security. It advocated sending an expeditionary force to retake Messana to eject the Carthaginians. The attack triggered the first Punic War between the two powers. It turned into a quarter century struggle that was marked by intense fighting mostly on Sicily.

The First Punic War was ultimately a Roman victory that ended Carthage's presence on Sicily. It also saw Roman advances in naval technology such as the corvus to help board Carthaginian ships. Hitherto the Romans had little naval strength relative to Carthage but its innovations in naval warfare proved crucial in undermining Carthage's longstanding naval superiority. Meanwhile on land, despite the back-and-forth nature of the battles, the Roman army's tactical flexibility often proved superior to Carthage which after 23 exhausting years agreed to peace. It gave up control of Sicily to Rome (aside from Syracuse) and paid a tribute over the course of 10 years.

Rome also after the war used Carthage's distraction against a Libyan rebellion in the Truceless War to take control of Sardinia and Corsica in 238 BC.

To compensate for the loss of territory on Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, the Carthaginians under Hamilcar Barca tried to expand its territory in Iberia against Celtic and Iberian tribes especially to profit from increased mining production. They also gained new manpower and agricultural production to boost their economy and military again. They also had a standing agreement with Rome to not intrude north or south of the Ebro River respectively. However, an Iberian city of Saguntum south of the Ebro had an agreement with the Romans. This upset the balance of power established with Carthage in Iberia. Hamilcar Barca's son Hannibal now in charge of the Carthaginian army in Iberia an avowed enemy of Rome, besieged Saguntum which he took in 8 months. This is turn led to Rome's declaration of war, starting the Second Punic War which lasted for the next 17 years.

In one of the most famous military campaigns of all time, Hannibal and his army complemented by Carthaginians, Numidians, Celts, Iberians crossed the Alps and invaded Italy, taking the war to Rome's home territory. Hannibal showing his tactical prowess would defeat Roman armies repeatedly on their own territory most notably at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. Many Italian cities that had been incorporated into Roman rule over the previous centuries rose up to join Hannibal against Rome. However, Hannibal never had sufficient strength to directly besiege Rome. Rome was constantly tested by Hannibal's victories over the next 13 years in Italy, but they refused to surrender and adopted an attritional strategy, and this wore down Hannibal by gradually retaking Italian cities allied to him if not able to defeat him directly. Likewise, they repelled Carthage's attempts to reinforce him in Italy. They also faced mixed success gradually conquering Iberia from the Carthaginians. Finally, an invasion of Tunisia forced Carthage to recall Hannibal back to North Africa to defend the capital from a Roman assault. He met the Romans in the Battle of Zama in 202 BC which resulted in a Roman victory over Hannibal himself at once.

Hannibal advocated for the government of Carthage to negotiate a treaty with Rome which it did. Its terms were harsh. A stripping of all overseas possessions of Carthage in Iberia and elsewhere including some African territories. A large punitive indemnity to paid to Rome over 50 years. A reduction of Carthage's navy ten warships, a ban on Carthage's use of war elephants. A prohibition on Carthage being able to fight war outside of Africa and any war it wages in Africa must require Rome's express permission.

Hannibal eventually became a sufete in Carthage and worked to reform the government of Carthage and stamp out corruption so as to ensure its ability to pay Rome its due from the treaty and rebuild its economy. Indeed, Hannibal was somewhat successful in his regards and Carthage's economy was somewhat rebounding but facing pressure from Rome and enemies in the local government, he went into voluntary exile in service to Greek states opposed to Roman expansion in the east. He died in exile under murky circumstances variously described as a suicide or murder.

The Third Punic War 149-146BC began will Carthage went to war in Africa with Berbers who were raiding its territory and without Rome's permission, this was used a pretext to attack Carthage itself by Rome for violating its treaty from the previous war. The third and final Punic War was characterized by a three-year siege of Carthage. Ultimately, the Romans after much pressure on both sides broke through its triple walls and assaulted Carthage in street-by-street fighting. The city was razed to the ground, much of its population killed by angered Roman troops. 50,000 Carthaginians were enslaved and sent elsewhere through the Roman Republic's empire. Carthage was no more as an independent political entity after 146 BC. A century later, Rome rebuilt the city on its ruins as part of its empire and it remained an important city within the Roman Empire until the fall of the Western half of the empire where it fell to the Germanic barbarians the Vandals who had their capital in Carthage, it was reclaimed by the Easter Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) by the forces of Belisarius in service to Justinian I. Carthage would face a final destruction as a Roman city when the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate destroyed the city in the year 698 AD. It never rose as a city again, instead its ruins remain part of the suburbs or the modern city of Tunis, capital of Tunisia.

Carthage despite its being steeped in legend and mystery remains worthy of study as one of the undeniably great civilizations of antiquity. A fact recognized by its contemporaries whether they wrote of it a complimentary fashion or with contempt, its power, wealth and influence was immense enough to engender scholarly study and reflection at the time. It is for these contemporary recognitions whether positive or negative and absence of surviving self-records that many continue its study into the modern age. Particularly its opposition to Rome and the perception by Rome that it was a worthy rival that needed complete annihilation, especially given Carthage's ability to stand up to Rome in a way no other power really could at its peak.

The more Carthage is analyzed both by its contemporary foreign commentators with the surviving archaeological and fragmentary historical record, the more nuance can be shed on the complexity of the civilization and influence it had on world history. Its opposition to Rome might be its most noted aspect but it shouldn't overshadow how else Carthage influenced the world. From its complex style of government and network of commercial imperialism that presaged future thalassocracies such as the Italian republics of the Middle Ages like Venice and Genoa and how it produced economic production models which influenced Rome and Greece and subsequently other areas of the world, they carried that influence on to. Likewise, another legacy of Carthage was how it helped build an ancient iteration of a globalized economy, shrinking the gap between the long distances of the ancient Mediterranean world by linking disparate geographies and peoples under a common commercial interest. In this commercial pursuit it also revealed itself to have both a distinct dominant culture but one that was not intolerant or unable to accommodate and absorb other cultural influences. In many ways ancient Carthage by way of its influence on Greece and Rome and their own influences give us glimpses into how its existence served as a precursor to the modern world we inhabit.

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unhonestlymirror · 1 year

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Have read an ff not so long ago, about how GDL Lithuania gets isekaied to modern Lithuania's place and. Despite being written well, it is so completely wrong lmaoo

If GDL Lithuania got trapped in modern hetalia all of the sudden, the FIRST thing he would do is to look where is Belarus because giving its territories with the city where Mindaugas was born to muscovites is just *wrong*. If he discovered she was under russia, he would be mad and frustrated and would most likely try to explode russia's house. If he heard that ht!Ukraine and ht!Belarus call russia big brother, he would set russia's house on fire one more time. While screaming. Still would be really depressed afterwards.

He would have hugged Latvia and cried because he looks just like Latgalia, then said sorry he wasn't able to protect him from Livonian Order and then russia. He would be indignant that ht!Latvia does not know how to work as a blacksmith and would promise to teach him blacksmithing. If Latvia told him what happened during soviets, GDL Lithuania would go and set russia's house on fire ONE MORE TIME.

At first, he would have reacted to Estonia with strong distrust, but then he would have melted away and became buddies.

Then he would have gone to Sweden to make amends for slaughtering his warriors during Commonwealth because he never truly wanted to do this and he's sorry. As an apology, he would have brought a fresh deer (he would have brought a dozen if HE STILL HAD BELARUS). If stunned Sweden said that he is a vegetarian, Lithuania would have cried and asked if Sweden is sick and if it was because he lost too many people. Sweden would console him for a while, feeling himself slowly going crazy.

Then Lithuania would have praised Italy a lot for Bona Sforza especially, and accidentally brought both Italies to tears, saying that ancient Rome was a very hot, sexy and experienced man.

Then he would be shocked at how older Germany looks and asked him in Prussian where is Prussia (so that he can laugh at his grey-haired wrinkled ass). Then he would be twice stunned hearing in a language that is *not* Prussian that Prussia is dead. Because. Of course, he dreamed about it, but he never actually imagined how it would happen. Then he would be sad cause he's the last speaker of Prussian. He would have plunged Germany into an existential crisis.

All this time Lithuania would be running away from ht!Poland because 1)fuck Commonwealth 2)he didn't protect Belarus and Ukraine as he promised so he cannot be trusted 3)modern ht!Poland is scary. Truly scary. Even for such an old wolf as Lithuania. Not like brave Swedish warriors at all, and not even like Polish hussars and other szlachta he used to know. Perhaps Lithuania would poke a cross at him.

The only person with whom he would not change relations in any way would be France (who would have immediately realised it is not the modern Lithuania but still behaved like everything is alright, to have a good laugh)

Eventually, Lithuania would have go to forest to hug the trees and wash away the sadness from his exhausted heart.

...

And then set russia's house on fire ONE MORE TIMEEEEEE

#shitpost?#i need to consult my Lithuanian friend #hetalia #hws aph Lithuania

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clairelsonao3 · 6 months

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Happy STS!

Someone finds your google history for your wip. How much trouble are you in?

Happy STS, Elli! Thanks for the ask!

Hell, I'm in trouble for my WIP WITHOUT anyone finding my Google history. 😂

But, yeah, okay, let's do this. For GSNBTR, off the top of my head:

Serious stuff:

First, obviously, numerous searches related to chemistry, physics, and engineering, including survivorship bias theory, i.e. the rocket thing (probably spent weeks on that alone), organic chemistry and the different methods for teaching it (yes, I downloaded textbooks), premed degree requirements, molecular orbital theory (yes, it's a real thing, I didn't just make it up), actual IRL mirror telescopes, how they're built, where they're located, and what they do, CERN and the large hadron collider, fog bows and the guy who discovered them, liquid nitrogen, how it's used and stored and its effects on chemical bonds, idk probably dozens of other topics ...

Every topic related to ancient practices of slavery one could possibly imagine -- everything from day-to-day treatment of slaves in Greece and Rome, how much it cost to buy and maintain slaves, slavery and the legal system, different types of tortures and punishments, the historical proportion of slaves to the free population, laws related to sex and gender, Partus sequitur ventrem, Aristotle vs. Seneca and the Stoic views on the nature of slavery and the soul, and yes, different types of historical manumission (stay tuned for more on that soon thanks to another ask ...😉) Some of this knowledge long predates my current WIP (I studied the classics, as I'm sure I've mentioned) but I needed to refresh my memory.

Literacy and the different methods and timeframes for teaching it as well as basic mathematical and scientific concepts and problems and how those are taught

Poetry and literature, in particular Shakespeare, Hugo, Plautus, Terence, Joyce, Yeats ... and the Bible.

Languages: Luxembourgish, French, German, and Spanish, in particular curses, slang terms, and colloquialisms, but also viewing/listening native speakers to get a feel for the accents and fact-checking everything through Google translate and online dictionaries (thank you, lod.lu!)

Various European countries' geography, economies, and politics, agriculture, cuisine, currency, etc.

Southwestern desert geography, flora and fauna (I lived there of course, but I still needed to make sure to get the details right)

The gambler's fallacy and the theory of scientific realism

Whumpy stuff:

1st, 2nd and 3rd-degree burns and their treatment

Use of cattle prods in torture and the difference between cattle prods and tasers

Handcuffs and shackles and how to escape from them (if they're put on correctly and you don't have the key, good luck)

Wound dehiscence, types of sutures, torn rotator cuffs and other arm injuries, how they're treated and how they heal

Videos of field medicine techniques

Photos and descriptions of scar tissue

Dozens of videos of street fights and descriptions of hand-to-hand combat techniques for people of different genders, sizes, and skill levels (tbh I probably spent longer on this than any of the science, because it does not come easily to me)

Whatever other injury anyone did or will suffer from, assume I looked it up (whether or not I decided to ultimately portray it accurately or not 😂)

Miscellaneous:

Microchipping in pets and how it might apply to humans, particularly their migration and potential removal, and the possibilities of real-time GPS tracking using them (there is a possibility, but right now this concept is still sci-fi)

Different car makes and models, how long they've existed, and how they're designed and driven

Different companies, pop culture entities, and brand names and specifically how long they've existed (if they began post-1950, I can't use them)

BDSM etiquette, safewords, etc.

Other spicy stuff, including the likelihood of multiple orgasms (YOU ASKED) 😂 and synonyms for common body parts and sexual terms just to help me be more creative (thank you, Ao3 Guide to Writing Smut)

Topics related to tech startups, finance, IPOs, mergers and acquisitions, etc., though I also use that in my day job ...

Astrological signs and MBTIs for my characters

The rules of golf 😂

Tons of stuff I'm forgetting

Yeah. I'm not sure what this hypothetical person viewing my search history would think of that, but they'd probably be concerned. Or intrigued, in which case they're my new BFF.

#sts #asked and answered #my writing #gsnbtr

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mavrla · 1 year

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I graduated three years ago from my master’s program. I finished with a straight-A average, got the best grade on the scale from my thesis, and got picked to a research group for a multidisciplinary project from a bunch of qualified candidates. I was told by my supervisor and by the person who graded my thesis that I should continue my studies on PhD level. I wanted to continue my studies on PhD level. So what did I do when I arrived back from Rome?

Started teaching in middle school.

The reasons were (mostly) financial: COVID shut me the opportunity to return to my old place of work, and I got offered a teaching position after sending applications to practically anywhere I could imagine working. The idea of having a job that I had an education for was alluring, too, even though I never really wanted to teach for a long term.

I have now taught in middle school for 2,5 years. I don’t particularly like the job - I like to teach, yes, and both religion and history are lovely subjects with many opportunities - as the everyday demands with cramped classrooms, students who need more individual support that it is possible for one person to offer (while still teaching all the other kids in the classroom), and the angry parents are quite a lot to deal with. They also create the kind of challenges I don’t particularly want to solve, nor have the resources to solve. On a personal level, I don’t feel like I’m moving forward or learning to be a better teacher, and so, with all this cynicism that is just increasing every day, the entire purpose of my job is to survive for a day, a week, a month, until the next vacay. Which I need to use to gather my strength and rest. The sheer noise of school/classroom makes me want to go directly to sleep after each workday.

In short, I’m working in a job that could be interesting, but isn’t that for me. I need to find an out before I get even more burnt out than I already am.

The obvious choice, the dream choice, would be going back to the academia. But, as we all know, it isn’t that easy. PhD applications are a challenging project, where you need to stand out as both an excellent scholar and a person that is agreeable enough to work with. And trying to stand out as a middle school teacher who just *wants* to return to academia because she can’t tolerate the idea of staying in the classroom for any more time is... difficult.

I always feel like I’m not enough to apply anywhere. I might have a curious mind, but my imagination is lacking and it has always been very difficult to me to find a fresh angle to any given topic - which, to me, sounds like an essential skill to a PhD student. My English is better than it has been, but I’m still not anywhere near native speaker level, and I have little other language skills to compensate for that. I read French, Italian, and German all to some degree, but I’m not capable of writing or conversing in them. As a historian, my knowledge of ancient languages is lacking, too. My Latin isn’t as good as it should be. My Greek is barely there, as are my Hebrew and Arabic. I know I can study more, I know I *have to* study more, but still, the feeling of being just too incapable of doing anything with these skills lingers.

I know I can write. The problem is I hate writing. After graduating, I have participated in two different article collections, and it's been an honor, but I still enjoy reading other people’s thoughts far more than I enjoy vocalizing my own. So, this has lead me to think that perhaps I don’t want a PhD, perhaps I just miss the academia - getting to read and converse and enjoy being surrounded by curious people who love the same sticks and stones I do? Maybe academia in itself is my happy place, but taking the next step there isn’t for me?

So maybe I should leave my job and apply for another master’s. I could do history, as I already have a strong background there, or Islamic studies, psychology or philosophy, as I used to minor in those. I could expand my expertise and study something like gender/intersectionality studies. Or I could just try to apply to some prestigious school and see if the grass is greener in there, if that would make me feel like I was able to conduct original research sometime in the future.

At the same time, I feel like doing a new master’s would not only be a financial suicide but also taking a step back - a step I have already taken and completed relatively successfully. I have ideas that I love, I have willingness to pursue these ideas and see where they would take me, but taking the next step and trying to sell these ideas feels so terrifying that it’s debilitating. I have spent so many days lying in my bed reading fanfiction when I could have sent emails to some professors I know could help me (or ignore me, which probably is the more realistic worst case scenario in comparison to the imaginary derision and laughter I’m expecting in my head).

I feel so tired and confused and alone with all these thoughts and dreams and hopes and fears. Some days, they just hurt me more than they usually do, and today is just one of those days.

#phd applications #imposter syndrome #gradbrl #grad student #phd candidate #teacher rant

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clevercrowslair · 7 months

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a brief summary for English-speakers:

back in Ancient Rome, Caligola had two ships built in Lake Nemi to host the cult of goddess Isis (I have already discussed this in my post about Diana and Nemi). both crafts eventually sinked, and it took hundreds of years to successfully get them out.

it took three years to get them out, from 1929 to 1931. very unluckily, though, the ships were lit on fire in 1944, during WWII. many speculations surrounded the accident: some folks believed that a couple of kids were responsible, others would claim that it had been the Germans trying to escape.

the mystery has now been solved, apparently, thanks to archaeologist Flavio Altamura and historian Stefano Paolucci. after analysing the evidence carefully, it was discovered that the American army had bombed the museum where the ships were held to destroy a German settlement, filled with weapons.

#roman paganism #roman polytheism #roman pantheon #religio romana #cultus deorum #roman polytheist #paganism #ancient roman religion #roman pagan #roman religion #world war ii #world war 2 #history #ancient rome #contemporary history

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senatushq · 10 months

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“Sometimes, when we feel the greatest need to be alone, it's the moment we should most welcome the company of others.”

- a previous address to the senate by Elena Montoya ( The Voice )

In the senate forum a summit was held for the varied marshals, senators, and representatives from the supernatural community that made up Rome. Flyers appeared on walls, letters manifested in mailboxes, invisible to the non-magical eye, the city was made well aware of the event intended to rally the varied species in hopes of defending the city. Around the senators and the triumvirate a crowd took form, spirits, demons, witches, druids, members of The Eye and other entities with a vested interest in securing the city. At the entrance of the forum, representatives from the Amaranthus coven made any who attended sign an ancient and magically binding contract, written in antiquity by the three covens and kept safe in the Amaranthus’ reliquary, spelled by The Tower, those who attended the senate would be made to act in unity to take down the Asphodel while keeping Rome’s best interests in mind.

The Hand chaired the meeting and opened the table to the rest of the senate after presenting the issues at hand: the death of magister Romulus, the threat of the Asphodel, the fortification of the Fairy King’s Forest, drow influences within the city, druid presence on the senate, and the prospect of releasing prisoners to fortify their ranks. The Hand informed the senate that the magisterium’s aid had been requested, as well he outlined the importance of distinguishing a military hierarchy and planning an assault on the Asphodel before the necromancers turned against Rome again. The senate would continue to run the political aspects of the city, the day to day, etc, but a separate military regime that pulled on the city’s experts to train, form a plan of attack, and to ultimately take out the Asphodel would be the best course of action. Additionally, he informed the forum that they had found the necromanteion’s location and would be able to sneak through their defences when the time arose.

The Speaker outlined that Romulus was definitely not dead and was absolutely alive and well. He was shaking and nobody had the heart to argue with him, so the forum just made a white boy smile and nodded. The Speaker went on to highlight that understanding the grievances of the lycans and the fey would be important if they wanted to move forward. While other senators protested allying with known criminals and rebels, Nettelia, The Praetor, and The Future advocated for making another attempt at peace with the The Shadow and The Harbinger of the fairy court and lupo pack respectively. The Speaker, The Future, and The Praetor were tasked with coming to a peace agreement with the fairy court and the lycan pack. Given the positions within the druid community and the weight of the archdruids’ power, The Speaker also pointed out that should the druids return to the senate then they should put senators forward that would sit in place of the archdruids. Given the history of violence and criminal actions of at least half the archdruids, The Immortal, The Cardinal, and The Hand had to agree with The Speaker.

Backed by Aren, Octavian, and Dionaeia, Nettelia relayed much of what she knew about the necronomicon and the powers and limitations of the Asphodel to the senate forum. If the book is destroyed then there’s a chance of reform for those who’re connected to it, though in some cases the only resolution would be to either imprison them, bind their magic, or both. She outlined the importance of medical preparations in the coming military division and advocated for a separation between the military body and the senate itself so politics would not interfere in the coming battle. Now and then Octavian interjected but frequently rambled off and started talking to himself, only further proving to the rest of the senate that proxies needed to be appointed for the druids’ senators. She also pointed out that Trivia is a valuable ally who is not present, which makes her vulnerable, since the Asphodel can channel her and bolster their strength. Nettelia is for the covens of Rome to make contact with her, if Trivia could not be persuaded then they would need to channel her anyways - the Amaranthus being the best option since they’re immune to outside influence. Dionaeia, Aren, and Octavian supported this, recognizing that they would need as much manpower as possible.

Given that Octavian is the only one with an interest in politics, and even then he resents the senate, the archdruids agreed to appoint senators from among their ranks. Nettelia appointed The Shark, Aren appointed The Lion, Dionaeia appointed The Princess, and Octavian appointed The Lupine.

The Future opened the labyrinth’s facility to the supernatural community and invited all those who attended the summit to witness it firsthand. Through their unsurpassed medical innovations and advanced technology they could enhance the powers of those willing to participate in their trials, additionally they could assist the vampires in making sure that when the time came they wouldn’t be vulnerable to necromantic magic. The Enforcer opened the Outpost’s state of the art training grounds and anti-supernatural weaponry to assist in the training and development of military strategy. Additionally, The Eye’s facilities are the only locations in Rome that have been securely maintained against the Drows’ methods of observation.

The Tower advocated for banishing Pythia back to the Inferno and alongside The Sacrifice, The Oracle, and The Ivy, wished to see the witches and other members of the Asphodel saved if possible. Outlined that those who’d fallen under the necronomicon’s influence were just as much its prisoners as those within the senate’s holdings. Under the senate’s edicts any loss of supernatural life is a waste. The Amaranthus and the Ivy Coven have extensive experience in policing witches and varied forms of magic, while the Narcissus and the Dahlia both have a history with blood magic. While The Sacrifice did not outright say it, The Hand is also aware that the Narcissus’ sovereign’s unique experience with necromancy would also provide them with an advantage. Ultimately the senate agreed to save those that they could, whenever possible, and the four sovereigns would be tasked with forming a witches’ mark that would sever a necromancer’s connection to the necronomicon along with a removable portion that would restrict their magic for the duration of their reform.

The vote to form the Allied Senate Forces, separate from the Senate itself, was passed. The forces would consist of two regiments, the battle regiment, and the support regiment. The Immortal was elected as the militant leader of both. Under the support regiment, there were four divisions: the surprise attack division, logistical support and medical aid division, intelligence division, and the sensory division. The battle regiment would be led by The Lion and was divided into five divisions: mid-range combat, short-range combat, short-mid range combat, long range combat, and the special battle unit.

Captain of the surprise attack division would be The Sacrifice, his lieutenant would be The Tower. Captain of the logistical support and medical division would be Nettelia, her lieutenant would be The Healer. Captain of the intelligence division would be The Enforcer, his lieutenant would be The Praetor. Captain of the sensory division would be The Oracle, her lieutenant would be The Dhampir. Captain of the mid-range battle division would be The Lion, and his proxy would be Aren. Captain of the short-range battle division would be The Bloody. Captain of the short-to-mid range battle division would be Dionaeia. Captain of the long range battle division would be The Tower, and captain of the special battle division would be Octavian.

Training and strategizing would take place at The Eye’s Outpost, and the Captains of each division would be responsible for the development of each of their units. The support divisions also have a lieutenant to assist with strategizing and training. Captains would meet periodically to continuously discuss individual strengths and weaknesses to ultimately form the four-man teams that would best balance out the abilities of each as they continue to create their plan of attack.

The vote to release prisoners from the senate holdings, as well as all those still within The Eye’s facility was passed and the Allied Senate Forces were formed

ooc info

The summit took place Friday June 23rd

Druids are back on the senate, the senators are: Eren, Safiye, Esme, and Fen'Harel.

Allied Senate Forces have been made, training will be done at The Outpost.

The sovereigns will be working to try and bind necromancers so they can't tap into the necronomicon/be influenced by it.

Senators listed above that advocated for peace with the fey and lupo have been tasked with trying to achieve it.

Appointed Captains are responsible for training and developing their respective divisions, they'll meet regularly to develop ze big plan.

#senatus.plot #senatus.vi #senatus.summit

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xtruss · 1 year

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Hebrew Wasn’t Spoken For 2,000 Years. Here’s How It Was Revived.

The religious language that lay dormant for millennia is now global, used by millions of people around the world—including in China.

— By Allie Yang | May 11, 2023

The Codex Sassoon, the oldest and most complete Hebrew Bible, is set to go to auction this year. Religious texts like this one were a major factor in keeping Hebrew alive for two thousand years. Photograph By Wiktor Szymanowicz, Anadulo Agency/Getty Images

Today, Hebrew is a thriving language—used by millions of speakers around the world to communicate all their thoughts and desires.

That may have seemed almost impossible less than 150 years ago, when the language was thought to exist only in ancient religious texts.

For some two thousand years, Hebrew laid dormant as Jewish communities scattered across the globe, and adopted the languages of their new homes. By the late 1800s, Hebrew vocabulary was limited to archaic and religious concepts of the Hebrew Bible—and lacked words for everything from “newspaper” and “academia” to “muffin” and “car.”

Here’s a look at the bumpy road to modernizing Hebrew and the debates that surround its continuing evolution today.

Girls learn ancient Hebrew in Samaria, a region in modern day Palestine 🇵🇸, in the early 1900s. Photograph By American Colony Photographers, National Geographic Image Collection

Hebrew Never Really Died

The Jewish people were once known as Hebrews for their language, which flourished from roughly the 13th to second centuries B.C.—when the Hebrew Bible, also known as the Old Testament, was collected. Hebrew was used in daily life until the second century B.C. at latest, experts believe.

But beginning in the second century B.C., Jewish people became increasingly ostracized and oppressed. Through the rise and fall of Rome, the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and beyond, they were forced to migrate around Europe and adopted the language of the country they were in. They also formed new languages like Yiddish, which mixed Hebrew, German, and Slavic languages.

Still, the Jewish people were known as “People of the Book.” As part of traditions like studying the Torah and reading it aloud, Jews continued to learn Hebrew to read from the Bible and written Hebrew lived on for more than a millennium mostly through religious practice.

There were exceptions: more educated Jews exchanged messages in Hebrew, sometimes between merchants for records of business, says Meirav Reuveny, a Hebrew language historian at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. A 10th-century trove of documents showed that some women, a group generally confined to domestic duties at the time, also wrote letters, exchanged legal documents, and recorded business in Hebrew. From the 10th to 14th centuries, there was an explosion of secular Hebrew poetry in Andalusia, Spain.

Eliezer Ben-Yehuda reads at his desk shortly before his death in 1922. Historian Cecil Roth famously said, “Before Ben‑Yehuda, Jews could speak Hebrew; after him, they did.” Photograph By Lebrecht Music & Arts, Alamy Stock Photo

Waking The Giant

In the 19th century, most Jews in Europe were still second-class citizens when a new movement emerged that looked to Hebrew as a way to inspire hope through the Jewish people’s glorious past, Reuveny says. Hebrew revivalists wanted to expand the language beyond the abstract concepts in the Bible—they wanted to use it to talk about modern events, politics, philosophy, and medicine.

Among the leaders of the movement was Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, credited as the father of Modern Hebrew.

“One person cannot invent a language,” Reuveny says. “But he makes a good hero, something important for a social movement.”

Ben-Yehuda was born in 1858 in Lithuania, where Jews were heavily discriminated against and violent pogroms terrorized Jewish communities regularly. When Ben-Yehuda traveled to Paris in 1878, he was empowered by the growing Jewish nationalist movement he witnessed there.

He believed Jews needed a country and language to flourish. He moved to Jerusalem in 1881, where he and his wife made the decision to only speak Hebrew—despite missing words for essential modern items and concepts. They raised their son Itamar Ben-Avi to be the first native Hebrew speaker in almost 2,000 years.

In the beginning, Hebrew went through growing pains: the language needed many new words. Ben-Yehuda made a dictionary of new Hebrew words (including מילון, or milon, the word for dictionary). Hebrew newspapers across Europe invented their own words, too, Reuveny says.

Left: A shop on New York City’s Lower East Side in 1940 is covered with signs written in Yiddish, which primarily uses the Hebrew alphabet. Photograph By Charles Phelps Cushing, Classicstock/Getty Images

Right: A boy learns the Hebrew alphabet as a member of a Black Jewish congregation in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, circa 1955. Photograph By Archive Photos, Getty Images

Many people saw this as an unwelcome change—swapping an ancient and sacred language to a new and strange one. Hebrew revivalists chose a difficult way of life by speaking only Hebrew, before it could meet the needs of modern life.

Gradually, the language was standardized in the early 20th century. The first Modern Hebrew dictionary was released in its completed form in 1922. Hebrew language schools were opened, then Hebrew became the language of instruction of all subjects in Jerusalem schools (the first in 1913).

After the state of Israel was established in 1948, people flocked from all over the world. Many young adults learned Hebrew through the young nation’s mandatory military service, though most families in Israel became Hebrew speakers over one to two generations.

Today, of the 9.5 million people in Israel aged 20 and over, almost everyone uses Hebrew, and 55 percent speak it as their native language. Around the world there are around 15 million Hebrew speakers; in the U.S., there are 195,375.

An Unstoppable Force

Modern Hebrew has changed significantly but still shares clear ties with Biblical Hebrew.

“King David and I could probably understand each other,” says Mirit Bessire, Hebrew language program director at Johns Hopkins University, who points out that it’s not all that different from modern English speakers attempting to understand someone using Shakespearean English.

The growing pains Hebrew experienced as it modernized during Ben-Yehuda’s time are echoed in controversies today. Inclusive language such as non-binary adaptations have proven difficult to adopt as Hebrew is significantly gendered, Reuveny says. Modern words and concepts like “gaslighting” also stir debate about how much outside cultures are affecting the language.

“Language does naturally evolve and grow. It’s inevitable. It’s not in our hands what our language does,” Bessire says.

Language fills the needs of its users, she adds—and today we have more needs than ever as social media and email connect communities of Hebrew speakers far beyond Israel. For example, Bessire says, there are Hebrew communities in China that are not Jewish but have become fluent in the language for business purposes.

“Hebrew is a language of proficiency,” Bessire says. “It's a language that you use for your everyday life, from technology to medicine.”

#Hebrew language

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