#analytical psychology: theory and practice
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[my grandfather's photo :: from my flickr files]
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More and more I tend to see the soul expressing itself in body symptoms – in the way the body moves, in the dreams. I see it almost as a prisoner with the complexes squeezing in to take the life out of it.
So, I try to do the mirroring that the parents were not able to do. The soul just became more and more encased.
It wasn’t heard in a child’s body. It wasn’t seen. And that’s because the parents often have their own agenda as to what the child is, so they want it to act and speak in a certain way. The result is that the soul goes underground. I see therapy as an attempt to reconnect what that child has lost, the soul child.
- MARION WOODMAN
[Analytical Psychology: Theory and Practice]
#Marion Woodman#Analytical Psychology#analytical psychology: theory and practice#quotes#childhood#body symptoms#feeling#somatic#mirroring#listening#C.T.Ben's photo albums#child of light#C.T.Ben's 1910s
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What is plurality? Where do we draw the line?
(This is a critique on how the plural community defines plurality. Feel free to reblog & share your thoughts.)
When it comes to plurality, I feel like we have to peel away the word on top and take a look at what it’s trying to define beneath. “Being more than one.” Doesn’t that sound really vague? There’s so many things that this could encapsulate. From the normal parts of self that we all experience, to internal family systems, to spiritual practices, to fictional companions, to dissociated parts that aren’t alters, to dissociated parts that are, and to much more.
There are several religious practices that approach the human mind as if it’s more than one. Some that have been professionally contrasted to DID are Brazilian Spiritist mediumship and an Afro-Brazilian religion called Umbanda, where possession experiences are a core practice. Even Ellert R. Nijenhuis, a leading researcher on DID and one of the minds behind the theory of structural dissociation, states that the same division of personality found in DID also occurs in these religious practices while also having completely different clinical profiles.
Is Jungian psychology, where the human mind is considered to have a multitide of selves (like ‘work self’ and ‘family self’), referring to plurality? What about Beck’s model of personality which suggests that our personalities are not singular but actually composed of infinite ‘modes’? How about cognitive analytical therapy and internal family system therapy, which both operate under the understanding that we are all inherently multifaceted? Ross (1991) posits that we all have multiple spheres of consciousness that lay outside our self’s awareness.
"Multiple consciousness is not the exception, but the law. For the mind is synthesis of many systems, of many moments consciousness," Sidis and Goodhart state (1905). Carl Jung (1935) says that “the so-called unity of consciousness is an illusion... we like to think that we are one but we are not.” It seems like most of psychology echoes that "being more than one" is a universal experience.
Even the only plurality non-profit, The Plural Association, believes that everyone has plural experiences. “Many (singlet) people have a Plural experience(s.) Those experiences are just as valid as those with a permanent, solid and/or long-term experience of Plurality,” they state in their article. They believe that being plural is just a matter of identifying as such, since even singlets experience plurality.
Yet, the majority of the plural community often claims that it’s impossible for everyone to have an experience that could be considered plurality. Why is that? If there’s a specific way that being more than one has to be experienced in order for it to be considered plurality, what is that? Where has the line been drawn?
So many people seem willing to say there’s a line, but no one agrees where that line is.
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Psychopathology, Ch 2 pt. 2
Describe the key features of psychodynamic models of abnormal behavior and evaluate their major contributions.
Psychoanalytic theory: the theoretical model of personality developed by Sigmund Freud, based on the belief that psychological problems are rooted in unconscious motives and conflicts from childhood; also called psychoanalysis.
Conscious: to Freud, the part of the mind that corresponds to our present awareness.
Preconscious: to Freud, the part of the mind whose contents lie outside present awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing on them.
Unconscious: to Freud, the part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness and that contains instinctual urges.
Id: the unconscious psychic structure, present at birth, that contains primitive instincts and that is regulated by the pleasure principle.
Pleasure principle: the governing principle of the id, involving demands for immediate gratification of needs.
Ego: the psychic structure that corresponds to the concept of the self, governed by the reality principle and characterized by the ability to tolerate frustration.
Reality principle: the governing principle of the ego, which involves considerations of social acceptability and practicality.
Superego: the psychic structure that incorporates the values of our parents and important others and functions as a moral conscience.
Defense mechanisms: the reality-distorting strategies used by the ego to shield the shelf from awareness of anxiety-provoking impulses.
Fixation: in Freudian theory, a constellation of personality traits associated with a particular stage of psychosexual development, resulting from either too much or too little gratification at that stage.
Other Psychodynamic Theorists
Carl Jung (1875-1961) - Swiss psychiatrist, developed analytical psychology. Believed an understanding of human behavior must incorporate self-awareness and self-direction as well as impulses of the id and mechanisms of defense. Believed that we have a personal unconscious, but also that we inherit a collective unconscious. The collective unconscious contains archetypes: primitive images or concepts that reside in the collective unconscious.
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) - broke away from Freud because he believed people are basically driven by an inferiority complex, not by the sexual instinct. These feelings of inferiority lead to a powerful drive for superiority, which motivates us to achieve prominence and social dominance. In the healthy personality, those struggles for dominance are tempered by a desire to help other people. Adler spoke of a creative self, a self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop potential. Because our potentials are uniquely individual, Adler's theories have been called individual psychology.
Karen Horney (1885-1952) - stressed the importance of child-parent relationships in the development of emotional problems. Horney believed that when parents are harsh or uncaring, children develop a deep-seated form of anxiety called basic anxiety, a feeling of "being isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world." Children may also develop a form of hostility called basic hostility. With Horney and other psychodynamic theorists who followed Freud, the emphasis shifted from a focus on sexual & aggressive drives toward a closer examination of social influences on development.
Today, most psychoanalysts see people as motivated on two tiers: by the growth-oriented conscious pursuits of the ego, and by the more primitive conflict-ridden drives of the id. Heinz Hartmann (1894-1970) was one of the originators of ego psychology, which posits that the ego has energy and motives of its own.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) - focused on psychosocial development, in contrast to Freud's emphasis on psychosexual development. Erikson attributed more importance to social relationships and formation of personal identity than to unconscious processes. Erikson's developmental theory, beginning in early adolescence, posits that our personalities continue to be shaped throughout adulthood as we deal with the psychosocial challenges or crises we face during each phase of life.
Margaret Mahler (1897-1985) - developed object-relations theory, focused on how children come to develop symbolic representations of important others in their lives, especially their parents. According to this theory, we incorporate parts of parental figures in our lives into our own personalities, and when we fear losing those people through rejection or death, we might incorporate elements of other people who disapprove of us or have perspectives that conflict with our own. The aim of Mahler's therapeutic approach was to help clients separate their own ideas and feelings from those of the incorporated objects so they could develop as individuals.
Psychosis: a severe form of disturbed behavior characterized by impaired ability to interpret reality and difficulty meeting the demands of daily life.
Evaluating Psychodynamic Models
culturally influential
generally agreed that people can have hidden motives even they may not be aware of
Freud placed too much emphasis on sexual & aggressive impulses and under-emphasized social relationships.
Freud's hypothetical mental processes are not scientific concepts because they cannot be directly observed or tested.
There IS a growing body of scientific evidence that supports the existence of unconscious processes that lie outside ordinary awareness.
Describe the key features of learning-based models of abnormal behavior and evaluated their major contributions.
Behaviorism: the school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and that focuses on the role of learning in explaining behavior.
Conditioned response (CR): in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that elicits an unlearned response.
Unconditioned response (UR): an unlearned response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a conditioned response after repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus that had previously evoked that response.
Classical conditioning: a form of learning in which a response to one stimulus can be made to occur in response to another stimulus by pairing or associating the two stimuli.
Operant conditioning: a form of learning in which behavior is acquired and strengthened when it is reinforced.
Reinforcement: a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of the response that it follows.
Positive reinforcers: reinforcers that increase the frequency of the preceding behavior when introduced.
Negative reinforcers: reinforcers that increase the frequency of the preceding behavior when removed.
Punishment: application of aversive or painful stimuli that reduces the frequency of the behavior it follows.
Social-cognitive theory: a learning-based theory that emphasizes observational learning and incorporates roles for cognitive variables in determining behavior.
Modeling: (1) learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others; (2) in behavior therapy, a treatment technique for helping an individual acquire a target behavior by observing a therapist or another individual demonstrate the target behavior and then imitating it.
Expectancies: beliefs about expected outcomes.
Evaluating Learning Models
spawned behavior therapy (AKA behavior modification) that involves systematically applying learning principles to help people change their undesirable behavior
behavioral therapies tend to be effective for depression, anxiety disorders & phobias, sexual dysfunction, and more
reinforcement-based programs are useful to parents and teachers
critics point out that human experience cannot be reduced to observable responses
social-cognitive theorists are particularly dissatisfied with the view that rewards and punishments control our behavior; thoughts and dreams and goals and aspirations are not accounted for
critics of social-cognitive theory might say that it places too little emphasis on genetic contributions to behavior and doesn't provide a full enough account of subjective experience
Describe the key features of humanistic models of abnormal behavior and evaluate their major contributions.
Self-actualization: in humanistic psychology, the tendency to strive to become all that one is capable of being; the motive that drives one to reach one’s full potential and express one’s unique capabilities.
Unconditional positive regard: valuing other people as having basic worth regardless of their behavior at a particular time.
Conditional positive regard: valuing other people on the basis of whether their behavior meets one’s approval.
According to humanists, we cannot fulfill all the wishes of others and remain true to ourselves. However, this does not mean that self-actualization invariably leads to conflict. Rogers believed that people hurt one another or become antisocial in their behavior only when they are frustrated in their efforts to reach their unique potentials. When parents and others treat children with love and tolerance, children also grow up to be loving and tolerant, even if some of their values and preferences are different from their parents' choices.
The goals of client-centered therapy or person-centered therapy are self-discovery, self-acceptance, getting in touch with one's true feelings, accepting them as one's own, and acting in ways that genuinely reflect those feelings.
Evaluating Humanistic Models
brought concepts of free choice, inherent goodness, personal responsibility, and authenticity into modern psychology
because conscious experience is private & subjective, it's difficult to quantify and study objectively
Maslow & Rogers' concept of self-actualization is not directly measurable or observable; it's inferred from its superimposed effects
Describe the key features of cognitive models of abnormal behavior and evaluate their major contributions.
Cognitive theorists study the thoughts, beliefs, expectations and attitudes we use to understand the world around us. They focus on how inaccurate or biased processing of information about the world can create abnormal behavior. Cognitive theorists believe that distorted interpretations or judgments about the events in our lives (not the events themselves) determine the likelihood of developing emotional problems.
Albert Ellis developed rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) to help people dispute their irrational beliefs and substitute more rational ones.
Aaron Beck developed cognitive therapy, and stressed four basic types of cognitive distortions that contribute to emotional distress:
Selective abstraction - People may focus exclusively on the parts of their experiences that reveal their flaws and ignore evidence of their competencies.
Overgeneralization
Magnification
Absolutist thinking
Evaluating Cognitive Models
The overlap between learning-based and cognitive approaches is best represented by the emergence of cognitive-behavioral therapy, a form of therapy that focuses on modifying both self-defeating beliefs and overt behaviors.
CBT is not particularly helpful for more "severe" mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia.
It's unclear whether distorted thinking patterns are caused by depression or are effects of depression.
The Sociocultural Perspective
The sociocultural perspective proposes that a fuller accounting of abnormal behavior requires that we consider social and cultural factors, including factors related to ethnicity, gender, and social class. Sociocultural theorists seek causes of abnormal behavior in the failures of society rather than in the person. Some of the most radical sociocultural theorists even deny the existence of psychological disorders or mental illness.
Evaluate ethnic group differences in rates of psychological disorders.
Knowing that a disorder disproportionately affects one group or another can help planners direct prevention and treatment programs to the groups that stand to benefit most.
In general, as incomes increase, the risk of serious psychological disorders decreases, a trend that points to the effects of financial stress on mental well-being (Weissman et al., 2015). People with household incomes near or below the poverty line stand a higher risk of developing serious psychological disorders, including mood disorders and substance use disorders, than those with higher incomes (Sareen et al., 2011; Weissman et al., 2015).
Exposure to racism, discrimination, and oppression is also a significant source of stress to ethnic minorities, and that can take a toll on mental health (Chavez-Duenas et al., 2019; Hartmann et al., 2019). [Note: does anyone know how I can add the ~ over an "n"? I'm not on mobile.]
We also need to account for differences among ethnic subgroups. For example, depression is more prominent among Hispanic immigrants to the United States from Central America than from Mexico, even when considering differences in educational backgrounds (Salgado de Snyder, Cervantes & Padilla, 1990).
Black and Hispanic Americans actually have lower rates of current (past year) psychological disorders or mental illness than white (European) Americans. Asian Americans also generally show lower prevalence rates than the overall US population (Kim & Lopez, 2014; Ryder et al., 2013; Sue et al., 2012). However, when it comes to the chronicity of psychological disorders, Hispanic and Black Americans typically develop more persistent or chronic mental disorders than white/European Americans (Breslau et al., 2005).
Additional analysis showed that differences in persistence of disorders were not a function of socioeconomic level (Breslau et al., 2005). However, white adults are about twice as likely - compared to Black or Hispanic Americans - to use mental health services, with factors relating to cost and lack of access to insurance coverage most often reported as reasons for lower use among racial or ethnic minorities (SAMSHA, 2015). It is conceivable that better access to mental health care may help shorten the duration of psychological disorders.
American Indians - and Native Hawaiians, and Alaska Natives - experience high rates of mental disorders, such as depression and substance use disorders (Gone et al., 2019; Nelson & Wilson, 2017; Skewes & Blume, 2019). They also happen to be among the most impoverished ethnic groups in the United States & Canada. High levels of stress and poverty among Natives living on tribal reservations are certainly among the factors contributing to a greater prevalence of depression (Kaufman et al., 2013).
Rates of substance use disorders among American Indians & Alaska Natives are more than double those of the general population (Skewes & Blume, 2019). The death rate due to suicide among 10-14 year olds is about four times higher for Natives than other ethnic groups. Native boys and young men have the highest suicide rates in the nation (USDHHS, 1999).
Native Hawaiians tend to die at a younger age than other residents of Hawaii, largely because they face an increased risk of serious diseases, including hypertension, cancer, and heart disease (Johnson et al., 2004). They also show higher rates of risk factors associated with these diseases, such as smoking, alcohol abuse, and obesity. Compared to other Hawaiians, Native Hawaiians also experience higher rates of mental health problems, including higher suicide rates among men, higher rates of alcoholism and drug abuse, and higher rates of antisocial behavior.
The mental health problems and economic struggles of Native peoples are, at least partially, a reflection of the alienation from their lands and erasure of their lifeways that resulted from European colonization (Gone et al., 2019; Rabasca, 2000).
Evaluate the sociocultural perspective in our understanding of abnormal behavior.
Social causation model: holds that people from lower socioeconomic status groups are at a greater risk of severe behavior problems because living in poverty subjects them to a greater level of social stress than that faced by more well-to-do people (Costello et al., 2003; Wadsworth & Achenbach, 2005).
Downward drift hypothesis: suggests that problem behaviors lead people to drift downward in social status, thereby explaining the link between low socioeconomic status and severe behavior problems.
The Biopsychosocial Perspective
examines contributions of multiple factors spanning biological, psychological, and sociocultural domains, as well as their interactions, in the development of psychological disorders
biological influences more prominent for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism (for example)
for anxiety and depression, there is a more intricate relationship between biological, psychological, and environmental factors
Describe the diathesis-stress model of abnormal behavior.
diathesis-stress model: holds that certain psychological disorders arise from a combination or interaction of...
a diathesis: vulnerability or predisposition to developing the disorder, usually genetic in nature
stressful life experiences
Whether a disorder actually develops depends on the nature of the diathesis and the type + severity of stressors the person experiences in life. The life stressors that may contribute to the development of disorders include birth complications, trauma or serious illness in childhood, childhood sexual or physical abuse, prolonged unemployment, loss of loved ones, or significant medical problems (Jablensky et al., 2005).
The stronger the diathesis, the less stress is generally needed to trigger the disorder. In some cases, the diathesis may be so strong that the disorder develops even under the best life circumstances.
A diathesis or predisposition is usually genetic in nature, but it could also take other forms. Ex. the tendency to blame oneself for negative life events that are not totally within one's control may put a person at greater risk of developing depression as a response to those events.
Evaluate the biopsychosocial perspective on abnormal behavior.
With few exceptions, psychological disorders or other patterns of abnormal behavior are complex phenomena arising from multiple causes.
Different people may develop the same disorder for different reasons.
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My College Courses
In this post, I’ve typed up my full list of college courses organized by Smith’s seven major fields of knowledge (used for Latin Honors). You can also check out my courses page to see them organized by semester.
As an engineering and computer science double major, it was unsurprising that my top categories were Mathematics and Analytical Philosophy {M} and Natual Science {N}. In fact, two-thirds of my credits (120/179) carried either the {M} or the {N} designation. Note that my three UMass computer science courses (marked with asterixis) weren’t technically assigned Latin Honors designations, but I’ve categorized them with an {M} as nearly all Smith computer science majors hold that designation.
While the vast majority of my courses were for one of both of my majors, I am proud to say that I took a total of 50 credits that were completely outside of both majors. Over the course of my time at Smith, I took courses from 13-16 different departments. The exact number depends on if you count psychology or not as I took a course cross-listed between both philosophy and psychology. Furthermore, FYS (first-year seminars) and IDP (inter/extradepartmental) courses fall outside of the set departments so are tricky to count.
Next to each category, I’ve included a percentage that measures the percentage of my credits earned for the given category. Note that the percentages don’t actually sum to 100% as six of my courses held two distinct designations. I’ve marked these courses using the caret and inverted caret symbols.
Arts - 3.35%
First Year of Study (MUS 914Y)
Chinese Music Ensemble (MUS 960)
Foreign Language - 6.70%
Intermediate French (FRN 120)
High Intermediate French (FRN 220)
Colloquium in French Studies French Calligraphies: Contemporary Chinese Women's Writing (FRN 230)⌄
Literature - 3.35%
Korean Cinema: Cinema and the Masses (EAL 253)⌄
Colloquium in French Studies French Calligraphies: Contemporary Chinese Women's Writing (FRN 230)^
Savoring Italy: Recipes and Thoughts on Italian Cuisine and Culture (ILT 205)
Historical Studies - 4.47%
Korean Cinema: Cinema and the Masses (EAL 253)^
Red Devil and Pink Ribbons: Representations and Refutations of Cancer (FYS 193)⌄
Mathematics and Analytic Philosophy - 45.2%
How the Internet Works (CSC 102)
How Computers Work (CSC 103)
Practicum - Introduction to the C Programming Language (COMPSCI 198C)*
Programming With Data Structures (CSC 212)
Advanced Programming Techniques (CSC 220)
Introduction to Software Engineering (CSC 223)
Computer Systems Principles (CSC 230)*
Computer Networks (CSC 249)
Theory of Computation (CSC 250)
Algorithms (CSC 252)
Operating Systems (CSC 262)
Computational Machine Learning (CSC 294)
Theory and Practice of Software Engineering (COMPSCI 520)*
Signals and Systems (EGR 320)
Calculus I (MTH 111)
Calculus II (MTH 112)
Introduction to Discrete Mathematics (MTH 153)
Calculus III (MTH 212)
Intro to Cognitive Science (PHI 120)⌄
Incompleteness and Inconsistency: Topics in the Philosophy of Logic (PHI 220)
Mathematical Methods of Physical Sciences and Engineering (PHY 210)⌄
Multiple Regression (SDS 291)⌄
Natural Science - 28.49%
Engineering for Everyone Bits, Bots and Thoughts (EGR 100)
Fundamental Engineering Principles (EGR 110)
Engineering Circuit Theory (EGR 220)
Engineering Mechanics (EGR 270)
Engineering Mechanics (EGR 290)
Fluid Mechanics (EGR 374)
Seminar: Techniques for Modeling Engineering Processes (EGR 389)
Seminar: Advanced Topics in Engineering-Digital Circuits (EGR 390dc)
Seminar: Advanced Topics in Engineering-Remote Sensing (EGR 390rs)
Intro to Cognitive Science (PHI 120)^
Introductory Physics II (PHY 118)
Mathematical Methods of Physical Sciences and Engineering (PHY 210)^
Multiple Regression (SDS 291)^
Social Science - 2.23%
Game Theory (ECO 125)
Red Devil and Pink Ribbons: Representations and Refutations of Cancer (FYS 193)^
Other - 12.29%
Network Security (CSC 251)
Engineering Design and Professional Practice (EGR 410D)
Design Clinic (EGR 422D)
Environment and Sustainability: Notes from the Field (ENX 100)
Emergency Care (ESS 107)
Topics in Outdoor Skills-Rock Climbing I (ESS 940ra)
Topics in Physical Conditioning-Self-Paced Fitness (ESS 945sp)
Introduction to Design Thinking (IDP 116)
Introduction to AutoCAD (IDP 150)
Introduction to 3D CAD Software (IDP 151)
Entrepreneurship I: Introduction to Innovation (IDP 155)
Entrepreneurship II: Entrepreneurship in Practice (IDP 156)
#college#Smith College#courses#latin honors#liberal arts#STEM major#engineering major#computer science major#liberal arts breadth
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I was studying Jurisprudence for my exam, and it's actually so interesting.
I mean I keep everything that I have to study for exams, but I do understand the concepts
The language I write in may not construct a guidelike answer, but atleast it makes me happy to know that I know the concept and the clarity regarding the concepts.
But anyways, back here
Jurisprudence is actually so much interesting.
So many theories, so many schools, felt like a pain in the ass while covering up the syllabus
But it's all genuinely so interesting.
Natural law school believes in divine law
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle were Greek philosophers who contributed to this theory
Socrates defined virtue, Plato introduced Doctrine of forms, Aristotle added more specifics to doctrine of forms while agreeing and disagreeing to some of the specifications made by Plato.
Analytical law school studies what is law and not what law ought to be
So many philosophers/jurists in this theory with their own different aspects.
John Austin : Gave the theory that : Laws are commands of the sovereign backed by sanction.
Jeremy Bentham : Utilitarian theory
H.L.A. Hart : Divided law into Primary and secondary rules
Hans Kelsen : pure theory of law, fun fact : Kelsen was also known as doubly pure because of his theory.
Historical school studies origin and development of law throughout the history.
Important Jurists : Savigny, Henry Maine
Sociological school studies sociological impact of law on society and how it affects a common individual.
Realist school.
Now this one.
It caught my attention because of how it's theory is.
One Scandinavian jurist talks about how Law is nothing but a psychological pressure created through times immemorial.
One such example is that when a classmate tells me that there's an exam tomorrow. It won't be taken as seriously as when the same information comes through the official notification of college.
Official notification in this context is one such example of psychological pressure in action.
It is rooted in the subconscious through history. This pressure created through history created a subconscious pressure to take official notifications, statutes, an authoritative body seriously, and to follow such laws or directions imposed by them.
Now, do you understand how crazy this is?
I mean it's really simple but it was something I never thought of.
We can connect this theory of psychological pressure to a lot of things. I'm a lot sleep deprived at the very moment, but if something comes to my mind, I'll write it down.
Because it's a topic that interests me, and it's so fun to think about it in regards to what more can it be?
One more Jurist tells us within this school, that The right you talk about exists only in metaphysical sense.
But if supposedly, I go to practice my right in court, I'll have to follow court's obligations.
But what if I don't follow court's obligations/ what If I couldn't follow it? Does that mean that I don't have a right?
And even after a case being heard by a judge, what if the ruling is not in our favor, does that mean we don't have rights?
Therefore as an example, Right can be considered as a metaphysical concept, for in that it never really exists in actuality.
This school focuses more on how law operates in the real world.
It also focuses on points such as, Judges are also humans and being a human, they can have bias, may it be conscious/subconscious
Therefore law studies how law is in real world and how it works and how is it applied and so on.
It concerns itself with reality of the law and world.
One example of Judges being humans and how it affects a law is that
Suppose a case arising dispute regarding abortion arises, and the judge is a Christian judge. In this case, the judge cannot give an order without some bias, as in Christianity abortion is not supported.
So my point was that Juris is really interesting, the theories are so complex and this question to define what law is and different ways to study it
Especially to study it since the ancient time, since the time of Socrates and still coming up with definitive meanings and theories and criticisms. I like it. It's complex I know, but it is that constant change and new way approach that keeps law changing, and accustoming new ways of thinking.
So yeah, loved it.
Cool theories.
#jurisprudence#law student#law school#theories#Realist school#scandinavia#Jurist#law studyblr#law stuff#interesting#interesting theories#theory#school of thoughts#natural law#metaphysical#writeblr#tumblr#random#writerscorner#writer#writeup#Sociological school#Analytical#analytical school#socrates#Plato#aristotle#Alf ross#llewellyn#llewellyn is such a weirdly cool name
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BBA in Branding and Advertising
Branding and advertising are at the heart of the media industry, influencing public perception and driving consumer behavior. The BBA in Branding and Advertising program focuses on creative strategies, branding ethics, and the psychological aspects of advertising. Students learn how to craft compelling narratives, design impactful campaigns, and develop brand identities that resonate with diverse audiences. This specialized track is perfect for those looking to unleash their creativity and innovation in high-stakes media environments.
BBA in Advertising
Advertising is an art that requires a deep understanding of various communication mediums and techniques. The BBA in Advertising program delves into the intricacies of advertising design, campaign planning, and media buying. It offers students a hands-on approach to learning, with opportunities to work on real-world projects and internships with leading advertising agencies. This practical exposure ensures that graduates are not only proficient in theory but also excel in executing advertising strategies that capture attention and achieve business objectives.
Industry Connections and Real-World Experience
One of the unique aspects of studying at a top institute is the direct linkage with the media industry. Students engage with seasoned professionals through workshops, guest lectures, and seminars, gaining invaluable insights and networking opportunities. These interactions facilitate a deeper understanding of the industry's inner workings and offer a clear pathway to career opportunities post-graduation.
Career Prospects and Beyond
Graduates of the BBA programs in media management, branding, and advertising find themselves well-positioned to enter a variety of roles within the media sector, including media planning, brand management, public relations, and digital marketing. The comprehensive skill set acquired allows alumni to adapt to various media settings, from traditional print and broadcast outlets to digital and social media platforms.
Your Future in Media Starts Here
For those aspiring to a career in media, choosing the right educational foundation is critical. A BBA in Media Management, Branding, and Advertising provides the toolkit required to navigate and succeed in this competitive industry. With a curriculum designed to foster expertise and creativity, and a teaching cadre of industry professionals, students are primed to become the leaders who will shape the future of media both in India and globally.
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The Role of AI in Employee Retention: Unlocking the Power of Data-Driven Insights
In today’s competitive business landscape, retaining top talent has become a critical priority for organizations across industries. Employee turnover can significantly impact productivity, morale, and overall organizational performance. As companies strive to foster a positive work environment and cultivate a loyal workforce, the role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in employee retention has emerged as a game-changer.
This article explores how AI-driven solutions can empower organizations to proactively identify and address potential retention challenges, ultimately enhancing employee engagement and job satisfaction. By leveraging the power of data and advanced analytics, companies can gain valuable insights and implement targeted strategies to create a workplace culture that nurtures and retains their most valuable asset – their employees.
Theoretical Framework
The application of AI in employee retention is grounded in various psychological and management theories that underscore the importance of understanding and addressing employee needs and motivations. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory1 highlights the significance of factors such as recognition, achievement, and growth opportunities in fostering job satisfaction and reducing turnover intentions.
Similarly, the Self-Determination Theory2 emphasizes the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in promoting intrinsic motivation and well-being within the workplace. By leveraging AI to personalize employee experiences and tailor development opportunities, organizations can effectively address these fundamental human needs, fostering a sense of purpose and commitment among their workforce.
Key Elements of AI in Employee Retention
Predictive Analytics and Employee Turnover
AI-powered predictive analytics can play a pivotal role in identifying employees at risk of leaving the organization. By analyzing vast amounts of data from various sources, such as payroll, HR records, and employee surveys, AI algorithms can uncover patterns and indicators that may signal potential turnover3 4. This proactive approach enables HR professionals and managers to intervene early and implement targeted retention strategies, addressing concerns before they escalate.
Enhancing Employee Engagement and Satisfaction
AI-driven platforms can analyze employee data to gain insights into factors contributing to job satisfaction, work-life balance, and career growth opportunities5. By leveraging these insights, organizations can personalize employee experiences, offer tailored development programs, and implement initiatives that foster a positive and engaging work environment. Additionally, AI-powered performance management systems can provide objective evaluations and personalized feedback, enabling managers to offer targeted coaching and support.
Talent Acquisition and Career Progression
AI can play a crucial role in attracting and retaining top talent by streamlining the recruitment process and identifying candidates who align with the organization’s culture and values 6. Furthermore, AI-powered career progression planning can monitor employee performance, identify growth opportunities, and recommend personalized development plans, ensuring that employees feel valued and supported in their professional journey7.
Research and Case Studies
Numerous studies and real-world examples highlight the positive impact of AI on employee retention. For instance, a study by the University of New South Wales8 demonstrated how Explainable AI (XAI) can be applied to predict employee attrition and implement effective retention strategies, providing transparency into the decision-making process.
Companies like IBM and Accenture have successfully leveraged AI-driven workforce analytics to identify flight risks and implement targeted interventions, resulting in improved retention rates and significant cost savings9 10.
Practical Application: AlbiCoins Solutions
While AlbiCoins does not currently offer AI solutions, their existing products can contribute to addressing employee retention challenges. The Value-Based Recognition module, for example, can foster a culture of recognition by aligning employee contributions with the company’s core values, enhancing engagement and job satisfaction.
The Team Project Contest module can promote a collaborative and innovative work environment, fostering a sense of purpose and achievement among employees. Additionally, the AlbiCoins Study Boost module can incentivize and reward employees for participating in training and development programs, supporting their professional growth and career progression.
Impact of Leadership
Effective leadership plays a pivotal role in promoting and managing AI-driven employee retention initiatives. Research has shown that transformational leadership styles, which emphasize empowerment, inspiration, and individualized consideration, are positively associated with increased innovation and better problem-solving within teams.11
Leaders who embrace AI as a strategic tool for employee retention can foster a culture of data-driven decision-making, transparency, and continuous improvement. By actively involving employees in the implementation of AI solutions and addressing their concerns, leaders can build trust and ensure a smooth transition towards a more data-driven approach to talent management.
Conclusion
In the era of digital transformation, the role of AI in employee retention has become increasingly crucial. By leveraging the power of data and advanced analytics, organizations can gain valuable insights into employee needs, motivations, and potential flight risks. AI-driven solutions enable companies to proactively address retention challenges, personalize employee experiences, and foster a positive and engaging work environment.
As the demand for top talent continues to intensify, embracing AI as a strategic tool for employee retention can provide a competitive advantage. By combining AI-driven insights with effective leadership and a commitment to employee well-being, organizations can create a workplace culture that nurtures and retains their most valuable asset – their talented workforce.
For business leaders seeking to implement AI-driven employee retention strategies, it is recommended to explore resources from reputable organizations such as the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM).12 and the Harvard Business Review13. Additionally, consulting with AI experts and HR professionals can help ensure a successful and ethical implementation of these technologies within your organization.
Sources:
Herzberg, F. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Business AI: the game-changer in predicting and enhancing employee retention
AI’s Role In Revolutionizing Talent Acquisition And Retention
AI in Employee Retention: 6 Awesome Applications to Nurture a Long-Tenured Workforce
How AI Powered Employee Retention Software Is Empowering Businesses To Reduce Turnover
How AI Can Help You Increase Employee Retention
Business AI: the game-changer in predicting and enhancing employee retention
The Role of AI in Retaining Top Talent
Where AI Can — and Can’t — Help Talent Management
Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership. Psychology Press.
Managing Employee Retention
Where AI Can — and Can’t — Help Talent Management
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Unveiling Dianetics: A Comprehensive Review of L. Ron Hubbard's Groundbreaking Work
The Outlook Of One Man's View & Vision Of Mental Health.
Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health by L. Ron Hubbard is a seminal work that has sparked both fervent praise and profound criticism since its publication in 1950. Hubbard’s exploration of the human mind and its potential for self-improvement continues to captivate readers, prompting them to delve into its pages in search of enlightenment. In this review, we’ll dissect Dianetics, evaluating its strengths, weaknesses, and enduring impact on the field of self-help and mental health.
Innovative Concepts: Hubbard introduces groundbreaking concepts that challenge conventional wisdom about the human mind. His assertion that the mind consists of two components, the analytical mind, and the reactive mind, lays the foundation for his theory of Dianetics. By identifying the reactive mind as the source of mental and emotional distress, Hubbard offers a novel approach to understanding and overcoming psychological barriers.
2. Practical Techniques: One of the most compelling aspects of Dianetics is its emphasis on practical techniques for achieving mental well-being. Hubbard introduces the concept of “auditing,” a form of therapeutic intervention designed to uncover and neutralize the harmful effects of the reactive mind. Through a series of structured exercises, individuals are guided to confront and resolve past traumas, leading to greater self-awareness and emotional resilience.
3. Holistic Approach: Dianetics advocates for a holistic approach to mental health, recognizing the interconnectedness of mind, body, and spirit. Hubbard emphasizes the importance of addressing physical factors such as diet, exercise, and sleep in conjunction with psychological interventions. By treating the individual as a whole, Dianetics aims to promote lasting and comprehensive well-being.
4. Controversial Claims: Despite its popularity, Dianetics has faced significant criticism for its controversial claims and lack of scientific evidence. Critics argue that Hubbard’s theories lack empirical support and are based on pseudoscience rather than rigorous scientific inquiry. Furthermore, allegations of cult-like behavior within the Church of Scientology, which Hubbard later founded, have tarnished the reputation of Dianetics in the eyes of many skeptics.
5. Cultural Impact: Regardless of its detractors, Dianetics has left an indelible mark on popular culture, influencing countless individuals and inspiring a dedicated following. Its concepts have been embraced by celebrities, intellectuals, and spiritual seekers alike, spawning a movement that continues to thrive to this day. The enduring legacy of Dianetics speaks to its ability to resonate with people seeking answers to life’s most profound questions.
6. Accessibility: One of the strengths of Dianetics lies in its accessibility to readers from all walks of life. Hubbard’s clear and engaging writing style makes complex concepts understandable to the layperson, allowing individuals to apply its principles to their own lives. Whether readers are seeking personal growth or relief from mental anguish, Dianetics offers a roadmap to self-discovery and empowerment.
7. Evolutionary Insights: While some aspects of Dianetics may be dated or controversial, its core insights into the nature of the human mind remain relevant in today’s world. Hubbard’s exploration of the subconscious and its impact on behavior foreshadowed later developments in psychology and psychotherapy. By encouraging individuals to take an active role in their mental and emotional well-being, Dianetics paved the way for a more empowered approach to self-help.
8. Overall Assessment: Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health is a seminal work that continues to provoke thought and inspire action. While its claims may be debated and its methods questioned, there is no denying the profound impact it has had on the lives of countless individuals around the world. Whether viewed as a groundbreaking paradigm shift or a controversial curiosity, Dianetics remains a testament to the enduring quest for understanding and healing the human mind.
In conclusion, Dianetics stands as a testament to L. Ron Hubbard’s vision of a world where mental health is not merely the absence of illness but the presence of vitality and purpose. While its detractors may dismiss it as pseudoscience, its proponents herald it as a beacon of hope in an increasingly complex world. Ultimately, the true value of Dianetics lies not in its adherence to dogma or doctrine but in its potential to awaken the innate potential within each of us to live a life of meaning and fulfillment.
CLICK HERE TO READ IT YOURSELF TODAY!!!
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Future of Resilience
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We only gain merit and psychological development by accepting ourselves as we are and by being serious enough to live the lives we are trusted with.
Our sins and errors and mistakes are necessary to us, otherwise we are deprived of the most precious incentives to development.
When a man goes away, having heard something which might have changed his mind, and does not pay attention, I do not call him back. You may accuse me of being unchristian, but I do not care. I am on the side of nature.
The old Chinese Book of Wisdom says: "The Master says it once."
He does not run after people, it is no good. Those who are meant to hear will understand, and those who are not meant to understand will not hear.
Freud - to quote the master's own words says it is not good to try to cure at all costs. He often repeated that to me, and he is right.
Psychological truths are double edged and whatever I say can be used in such a way that it can make the greatest evil the greatest devastation and nonsense. There is not one statement I have made which has not been twisted into its opposite. So I do not insist on any statement.
You can take it, but if you do not take it, all right. You may perhaps blame me for that, but I trust that there is a will to live in everybody which will help them to choose the thing that is right for them.
When I am treating a man I must be exceedingly careful not to knock him down with my eyes or my personality, because he has to fight his lonely fight through life and he must be able to trust in his perhaps very incomplete armour and in his perhaps very imperfect aim. When I say, ''That is not good and should be better," I deprived him of courage.
He must plough his field with a plough that is not good perhaps mine may be better, but what good is it to him? He has not got my plough. I have it and he cannot borrow it; he must use his own perhaps very incomplete tools and has to work with his own inherited capacities, whatever they are.
I help him of course, I may say forinstance: '"Your thinking is perfectiy good, but perhaps in another respect you could improve. If he does not want to hear it, I shall not insist because I do not want to make him deviate.
- CARL JUNG.
[Analytical Psychology: Theory and Practice]
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The Power of Offline Mock Psychology: Understanding the Human Mind Beyond Screens
In an increasingly digital world where algorithms predict our preferences and social media platforms shape our interactions, the art of understanding human behavior offline seems to be fading into the background. However, the essence of psychology, the study of the mind and behavior, transcends the digital realm. Offline mock psychology, a term coined to describe the observation and analysis of human behavior in real-world settings, offers a profound understanding of individuals beyond the confines of screens. Let’s delve into the significance and practice of offline mock psychology in today’s society.
The Human Element in Observation:
Offline mock psychology emphasizes the importance of direct human observation, allowing psychologists, researchers, and enthusiasts to witness behavior in its natural habitat. Unlike online surveys or social media analytics, which often capture curated versions of individuals’ lives, offline mock psychology involves immersion in real-world environments. Whether it’s observing social dynamics in a bustling cafe or studying decision-making processes in a shopping mall, the human element remains central to this practice.
Contextual Understanding:
One of the key advantages of offline mock psychology is its ability to provide a contextual understanding of behavior. Human actions are deeply influenced by environmental factors, social norms, and cultural nuances, which may not always be evident in digital interactions. By immersing themselves in diverse settings, practitioners of offline mock psychology gain valuable insights into how context shapes behavior. From the impact of architecture on mood to the influence of peer pressure on decision-making, every observation contributes to a richer understanding of human psychology.
Uncovering Unconscious Processes:
While online platforms offer vast amounts of data, they often fall short in uncovering unconscious processes that drive human behavior. Offline mock psychology, on the other hand, enables researchers to delve beneath the surface and explore the subconscious mind. Through careful observation and analysis, practitioners can uncover patterns, biases, and cognitive processes that individuals may not even be aware of. This deeper understanding sheds light on the complexities of human psychology and informs interventions aimed at promoting well-being and personal growth.
Bridging Theory and Practice:
In academia, psychology textbooks are filled with theories and concepts derived from controlled experiments and laboratory studies. While these provide valuable insights, they may lack real-world applicability. Offline mock psychology serves as a bridge between theory and practice, allowing researchers to test and refine psychological principles in everyday settings. By observing how theories manifest in real life, psychologists can validate their hypotheses and develop more effective strategies for addressing real-world challenges.
Ethical Considerations:
As with any form of research involving human subjects, offline mock psychology requires careful consideration of ethical principles. Respecting individuals’ privacy, obtaining informed consent, and minimizing harm are paramount in ethical research practices. Practitioners must navigate ethical dilemmas inherent in observational studies, ensuring that their observations are conducted ethically and responsibly.
The Future of Psychological Research:
In an era dominated by digital technologies, offline mock psychology offers a refreshing perspective on the study of human behavior. By grounding psychological research in real-world contexts, practitioners gain a deeper understanding of individuals and societies. As technology continues to reshape our world, the human element remains at the heart of psychological inquiry. Offline mock psychology reminds us of the richness of human experience beyond the screens and invites us to explore the complexities of the human mind in its natural habitat.
In conclusion, offline mock psychology stands as a testament to the enduring relevance of human observation in the field of psychology. By embracing the intricacies of real-world behavior, practitioners gain valuable insights that transcend the limitations of digital data. As we navigate an increasingly complex world, the practice of offline mock psychology serves as a beacon of understanding, reminding us of the profound depths of the human psyche awaiting exploration.
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Components of the ARC Triangle through a Jungian Lens
Introduction
I just got back from going to a Meetup group that was focused on relational health where they talked about many different therapeutic principles. They introduced the ARC triangle, which comes from Scientology, during this group. It is a model created by L. Ron Hubbard that puts emphasis on Affinity, Reality and Communication as necessary factors for understanding and improving human relationships. Because I wondered how this might intersect with Carl Jung’s work in analytical psychology, I decided to look it up more deeply. His theories of collective unconsciousness and archetypes provide much insight into interpersonal dynamics within relationships as part of his broader framework for understanding them in general through this lens alone should have been enough to intrigue anybody who was listening closely but even so also mine too at least just slightly more than usual given what we were talking about here today – And so if we can somehow manage integrate these ideas together then not only would it lead us towards better comprehension around the whole thing but also open up new areas where such understanding might be applied; or at least that’s what I thought before beginning my investigation anyways. So essentially what I’m aiming for with this project is an attempt at merging some practical aspects found within Scientology together alongside deeper psychological insights coming out from Jungian thought patterns themselves.
Affinity
Affinity within the ARC triangle as viewed through a Jungian perspective is emotional and psychological connection echoing archetypes engrained in people. According to Jung (1964), these connections are rooted in collective unconscious which serves as a storehouse of inherited human experiences and archetypes. Such affinity may be manifested when similar archetypal patterns occur invoking natural ties between individuals. The resonance – not only emotional but deeply psychological- that creates these connections can shape interpersonal dynamics. A more essential type of closeness can be reached by intuition and empathy between individuals leading to deeper relationships. Jungian theory implies that acknowledging and connecting with these unconscious elements may enhance emotional bonds that are critical for meaningful relationships, thus, exploring affinity from a Jungian standpoint encompasses understanding how our emotional links are shaped by affectional influences of archetypes and contents of the collective unconscious.
Reality
In terms of jung’s point, reality in the arc triangle refers to shared understandings or agreements on symbolic or archetyapl levels among two or more persons. Symbols were highly valued by Jang (1959) in accessing deeper layers of psyche which formed basis for common reality perception. This common reality transcends factual agreement into mutual acknowledging complex often subconscious mental processes. Incorporating such symbols will lead to greater degree of mutual understanding among people involved. This jungian notion about reality suggests that true accord should bring together internal worlds of various individuals through using common symbolism language within them; this way communication becomes stronger improving understanding therefore allowing genuine interactions between people.So, establishing a shared reality in Jung’s terms means aligning ons inner symbolic landscapes so as they can deepen ad enrich our interpersonal connections.
Communication
According to Carl Jung, communication involves more than just exchanging conscious ideas; it extends to sharing subconscious contents and emotions. He posited that proper communication goes beyond the conscious mind into the unconscious where our true intentions and feelings lie (Jung, 1960). In light of this, good communication must therefore connect the different parts of an individual’s psyche between awareness and unawareness thus fostering deeper comprehension as well as relationship. This process encompasses not only words but also symbols’ meanings and emotional undertones attached to them which are expressed or interpreted during conversations. Such an approach helps people align their worlds better thereby strengthening their closenesses too. Implied by this theory is the need for honest understanding through integration of hidden messages into dialogue in order to achieve genuine connection based on Jungian thought. Thus, making improvements towards communications from jungian perspective means creating a climate that allows for open sharing of both manifest and latent materials.
Interrelationship in the ARC Triangle from a Jungian Perspective
Enhancing Communication in a Jungian context means more effectively bridging the conscious and unconscious realms, which enriches both Reality and Affinity. By conveying not only conscious ideas but also unconscious feelings and symbols, individuals can achieve a deeper mutual understanding and connection. Increasing Affinity, according to Jung, involves recognizing and resonating with the archetypal patterns that emerge in interactions, which enhances communication and establishes a stronger shared Reality. This shared reality is not just about agreeing on external facts but involves aligning deeper psychological and symbolic understandings. Such alignment facilitates not only better communication but also strengthens the emotional bonds between individuals, thereby enhancing overall relational dynamics. Therefore each component of the ARC triangle supports amplifies others thus leading to holistic improvement in interpersonal relationships.
Conclusion
Looking at affinity reality communication triangle through jungian psychology lens allows us see how these three elements interact within human relationship systems . When we take into account collective unconsciousness from Jung’s work alongside archetypal patterns as seen in ARC configuration ,it becomes clear that there is more depth to interpersonal dynamics than what meets eye. This approach not only connects two major psychological perspectives but also enables people have closer and meaningful connections with others. Exploring these ideas either during therapy or personal growth can enhance one’s self awareness while dealing with other people . Therefore as we continue investigating on these points it will help us understand better relational health practices thus giving us applicable tools towards our own development as well as professional therapeutic intervention.
References:
Jung, C. G. (1959). The archetypes and the collective unconscious. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Jung, C. G. (1960). Psychological aspects of the mother archetype. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Jung, C. G. (1964). Man and his symbols. London: Aldus Books.
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Object Relations: Melanie Klein Pt. 1
She was an iconoclast who straddled the line between orthodox Freudianism while at the same time adding many new elements from her experience in child psychology. Like most other theorists, she used her own psyche and her environment for material for her theories and analytical practice. Her life was full of struggle and triumph, full of allies and enemies, including within her own family. This is a story of a woman who had to push through towards recognition starting from childhood all the way through her life. This is the story of Melanie Klein.
Forbidden Wishes
Melanie Klein was born in 1882 soon after her family had arrived in Vienna. Typical of most families Melanie was in an environment of siblings where a lot of early attachments were made, as well as defenses put up. Like other psychoanalysts, autobiographical material would factor into her theories and insights, which are mostly found in her writings collection. British Psychoanalyst Roger Money-Kyrle said "it is worth noting that, like Freud himself and many others, she practised self-analysis, so the works she published were almost certainly the result of analytic observations made both on her patients and on herself, cross-checked against each other." Phyllis Grosskurth, in Melanie Klein: Her World and Her Work, was able to put together information that originally was to be Melanie's autobiography, to flesh out some the bones in Melanie's story.
Melanie's interactions with siblings and her parents was a mixed bag, like it is with most families, and there were lasting impressions. She was born into a Jewish family that was secular. Her father Moriz Reizes was on his second marriage with Libbusa Deutsch. No reason survived in the documents as to why he divorced his first wife. It was an unsuccessful marriage that was soon dissolved when he was 37. On a trip to Vienna he met Libbusa, who was from Warbotz Slovakia. Her name is after the mythical founder of Prague. "He immediately fell in love with this 'educated, witty, and interesting' young woman, with her fair complexion, fine features, and expressive eyes." In Melanie's view, Libbusa's family was the side of the family that was the most intellectual and tolerant. Libbusa herself spoke with the air of being a down-to-earth mother grounded with the day to day life of taking care of the household while the husband had to find work where he could in his midlife. "They could not have been so naïve as to harbor any expectation that a middle-aged Jewish doctor of Polish origin could achieve professional success. Dr. Reizes was forced to take on a dental practice (indeed, he seems at first to have been a dentist’s assistant) and to supplement his income by acting as medical consultant to a vaudeville theater...Their difficult financial circumstances made it necessary for Libussa to open a shop—not only in itself a humiliation for a doctor’s wife, but also personally distasteful because in addition to plants she sold reptiles, from which she cringed in horror. Melanie does not speculate on her mother’s choice of a somewhat bizarre type of shop, but notes that such was the power of her mother’s beauty that customers loved to drop in to chat with her. She adds that Libussa’s customers 'understood' that she was a 'lady,' not a common shopkeeper—a rather curious disclaimer for her to feel obliged to make. One of Melanie’s earliest memories was of being taken to visit this place into which her mother disappeared every day. The shop was an integral part of their lives until 1907, when Libussa was finally relieved of this burden." Melanie's Uncle Hermann was of great help and lent money to the family to eventually acquire a house.
Melanie went to school with many other students of a different age than hers, but she was very happy nonetheless and caught the family bug for acquiring knowledge and earned good marks on her report card. Her mother "Libussa and her two sisters were consumed with a passion for learning, and these determined young autodidacts gained knowledge by reading and discussions with their father. Melanie admired the way her mother had taught herself to play the piano. She had a vivid recollection of Libussa pacing up and down the wide veranda of a summer flat they rented in Dornbach, on the outskirts of Vienna, totally absorbed in a book of French idioms she was memorizing. For Klein this was a demonstration of intellectual passion, since opportunities for her mother to put these idioms to practical use were almost nonexistent. There is evidence that as a young woman Libussa did have some respect for learning: she was attracted to her future husband partly because of his command of ten languages. Other relatives recalled Karoline as the clever sister, while Libussa was known as the beauty of the family. In any event, Libussa’s later letters are written in a German that indicates the language did not come easily to her...Certainly Melanie often detected dissatisfaction in her mother—and possibly contempt. 'I have never been able to get to the bottom of this, whether she was simply not passionate or not passionate as far as my father was concerned, but I do believe that occasionally I saw a slight aversion against sexual passion in her, which might have been the expression of her own feeling or upbringing, etc'...Klein could never recall an occasion when her parents went out alone together. She evokes a united Jewish family; while not rigidly orthodox, Melanie’s childhood was steeped in Jewish ceremonial, and she was always deeply aware of her Hebraic background. Both parents maintained a strong feeling for the Jewish people, 'though,' she remarks cryptically, 'I am fully aware of their faults and shortcomings.' She would never have been able to live in Israel, she asserts. At one point her mother tried to keep a kosher household but soon abandoned the attempt, particularly as she was opposed by her strong-minded children. Klein describes the circle in which they grew up in Vienna as 'anti-Orthodox.' Some Jewish observances were made but Klein felt there was no piety behind them." She was clued into this when her mother talked admiringly of a dying student with tuberculosis in her hometown who towards the end didn't believe in any god. She may have loved him. "While always feeling 'Jewish,' [Melanie] was never a Zionist, and her way of life was in no way distinguishable from that of a Gentile. Yet as a Jewish child in Catholic Vienna she must have been acutely conscious that she was an outsider and a member of an often persecuted minority. Psychoanalysis became for many Jews a religion with its own rites, secrets, and demands of unswerving loyalty. Melanie Klein, when she eventually discovered psychoanalysis, embraced it as ardently as any convert to the Catholic Church."
At times she was teased by her brother Emanuel in her early days, but they became closer as they grew up. Her older sister Sidonie with "violet-blue eyes, her black curls, and her angelic face" took pity and helped Melanie with reading and arithmetic early on. Unfortunately she died young from Scrofula. "I have a feeling that I never entirely got over the feeling of grief for her death." Emanuel was aggressive and rebellious because he was told he had heart problems and would die young because of his past scarlet and rheumatic fevers. He helped Melanie with her with Latin and Greek so she could enter an advanced secondary school and expected her to achieve great success. Melanie felt indebted to him and thought he would achieve much in his life if he had better health. "From a very early age I heard the most beautiful piano-playing, because he was deeply musical, and I have seen him sitting at the piano and just composing what came into his mind. He was a self-willed and rebellious child and, I think, not sufficiently understood. He seemed at loggerheads with his teachers at the gymnasium, or contemptuous of them, and there were many controversial talks with my father...My brother was deeply fond of my mother, but gave her a good deal of anxiety."
Melanie Klein Trust: https://melanie-klein-trust.org.uk/timeline/1882-1902/
Melanie's father was an influence, even if at times he was aloof with her. "As a child, Melanie loved hearing about her father’s courage during a cholera epidemic. In answer to an appeal for doctors to go out to the Polish villages, he not only went but, unlike the other doctors who would stand at the windows telling the victims what to do, Moriz Reizes boldly entered the cottages and treated the patients as he would have done if they had been suffering from any other complaint. When he returned, he found a letter from his mother imploring him not to risk his life. Whether this act of heroism actually happened or not is immaterial; Klein believed that it had." Although there were some disappointments when he refused her attention, and when he made clear her sister Emile his favorite. "'I don’t think I sufficiently understood my father, because he had aged so much by this time'...He was an 'old fifty' when she was born. 'I have no memories of his ever playing with me.'" Melanie and Emilie would continue to have a love-hate relationship until the end. Emilie's dreary life compared to her sister's eventual success led to some letters having an "I'm not jealous, but I am" quality to them. "Emilie, too, seems to have been caught up in the family pattern of guilt-inducement. If one of them had good fortune, the other had to pay for it." In one letter, after Melanie published a book, Emile confessed that "even if I have been unapproachable at times, that in secret I have always appreciated and admired your strong will!...[Melanie] had to assert herself in view of the fact that her mother told her that she had been unwanted, Sidonie was the best-looking in the family, her father openly expressed his preference for Emilie, and Emanuel was considered something of a genius..."
As destiny was predicted, Emanuel died young at 25 of heart failure, ending his ambitions of artistic grandeur. He also suffered from tuberculosis and may have used morphine and cocaine to manage the pain. "Emanuel convinced himself that his main motive for abandoning his medical studies and leaving Vienna was his certainty that he was doomed to an early death; he intended to live life to the full in the time left to him. His mother shared his view that the climate of Vienna was detrimental to his health, and she settled a small allowance on him to enable him to seek lands of sun and beauty in the traditional pattern of the dying artist. It was in this role that Emanuel saw himself, and he dramatized the situation to the full. His letters for the next couple of years are full of complaints about the meagerness of his allowance." As he travelled in Italy he exchanged letters with family members and complained of the "out of sight, out of mind" neglect he was feeling. He laid down in a hotel in Genoa one night and died. The hotelkeeper was curt and demanded expenses to be taken care of, considering the cleanup job needed for tuberculosis and superstitions future guests may have. His wife was more empathetic. "Perhaps it will console you a little to hear that your son passed away completely without pain. He was lying in his bed as if he were asleep, death throes can absolutely not have occurred; he had not even stretched himself. He was lying on one side, the eyes closed, the right hand near the face, the left one under the blanket, exactly as one does when one makes oneself comfortable in bed to go to sleep. Had he not been cold and stiff, one would never have believed that anybody could look so peaceful in death. The authorities sent two more doctors round, but all three were agreed that heart failure had brought his life to an end."
Despite struggling to enter the Gymnasium, when Melanie passed the entrance examinations, she had strong motivation. "Not only did she intend to study medicine, she asserted, but she planned to specialize in psychiatry—an extraordinary ambition for a middle-class Jewish girl when one thinks of the vicissitudes Freud was encountering in his profession at that very time in Vienna. About this time, Moriz Reizes’ health began to deterioriate rapidly, and the household was held together by the indomitable Libussa. Melanie seldom had a new dress; the theater or a concert was a rare event; but she felt gloriously alive, infused with that deepest of all the passions, intellectual fervor. Unknown to her mother, she read far into the night—an indication that her mother did not encourage her intellectual interests. Her homework she did on the tram between home and school. Her brother proudly introduced her to his friends, and Melanie blossomed into a vibrant young woman...Family circumstances may have been extremely stringent, but somehow enough money was found for a number of photographs of Melanie to have been taken during this period. She is a voluptuous dark beauty with heavy-lidded eyes, and already fully aware of her striking profile. She was aware, too, of her desirability, as all her brother’s friends seemed to be falling in love with her. When she was only seventeen she met her future husband (then twenty-one), a second cousin on her mother’s side, who was visiting Vienna from his home in what was then the Slovak part of Hungary." Despite her ambitions, Melanie settled quickly on Arthur Klein. She said that at the time she had a "passionate temperament" and "it did not take very long for me to fall in love with him...From that time I was so loyal that I refrained from any entertainment where I might have met other young men and never expressed a feeling that I already had in my mind, that we were not really suited to one another. Both loyalty to my fiancé, with whom I was up to a point in love, and circumstances, prevented me from mentioning this to my mother or my brother." By this time her father Moriz had already passed away of pneumonia and Alzheimer's. Not very much time later both Emilie, who married a lawyer, and Melanie were married with children. Libussa maintained the household and visited both families and helped them get settled, to the envy of Emanuel, who felt abandoned and forgotten towards the end of his life.
Melanie was now in the marriage, even though she knew it was a mistake, probably because she hadn't forgotten her prior professional ambitions. Her situation matched what Helene Deutsch felt about women who went into depression when family and children interfered with career ambitions and hobbies. Both sisters had trouble getting used to motherhood and the painstaking household chores. As household cleaning technologies and methods were developed, standards for cleanliness also increased, so chores became an area that women traditionally fought over. Either the extravagances were too expensive in order to keep up with the Joneses, so to say, or daughters and mothers couldn't agree on the correct or appropriate décor and fought over the details. This could also include servants and fighting with them if they couldn't meet expectations. Fights over parenting styles would be common between parents and spouses. Melanie at this time also fell into many depressions as she continued to have more children. In many cases, she had to escape to other towns and visit friends and family to deal with what her mother called "her nerves...Photographs taken of Klein during this period reveal the paralyzing depression in which she was entrapped. In her Autobiography she describes Arthur as 'difficult.' [He was also suffering from nerve pain, commonly called Neuralgia.] There is hardly a letter from Libussa during this period that does not refer to his 'nerves,' insomnia, and stomach complaints. Often he was too tired, too overworked, or too miserable to write to his wife, and Libussa conveyed messages from one to the other...Late in 1907 Arthur accepted a well-paid job as director of one of Count Henkel-Donnersmarck’s paper mills in upper Silesia. As a result, they had to move to Krappitz, a small, dreary provincial town without a single congenial soul with whom Melanie could converse. Even Rosenberg had seemed unbearably confining...upon her marriage in 1906. At this point Libussa, with little reluctance, was persuaded to come and stay with them. She was only too happy to do so because Arthur was now in a position to pay off Uncle Hermann for his investment in the house, and Libussa could finally give up the shop, which she rented out to a coffeehouse."
Object Relations: Helene Deutsch Pt. 1: https://rumble.com/v2wrvg5-object-relations-helene-deutsch-pt.-1.html
Object Relations: Helene Deutsch Pt. 2: https://rumble.com/v2yepky-object-relations-helene-deutsch-pt.-2.html
Libussa ended up being an interfering grandmother who micromanaged the household, despite being idealized in Melanie's later descriptions of her. "In the two and a half years they lived in Krappitz, Melanie seems to have been away almost as much as she was at home," especially in Abbazia where she underwent "carbonic acid baths and other current remedies for nerves." In one trip she was accompanied by a divorcee Klara Vágó who became a friend. "Every piece of advice [Libussa] gave her reinforced Melanie’s view of herself as a permanent semi-invalid" and she kept the unhappy husband and wife separated for the children's sake. "Libussa closed her eyes to the possibility that these separations were undermining the marriage. Everything had to accord with her conception of a conflict-free family situation...Arthur had to take frequent business trips and had plenty of opportunities for illicit amours if so inclined—and he might have been so inclined, considering that his wife was separated from him for weeks at a time and found sex distasteful even at the best of times. It is doubtful that we will ever know the truth about the marriage."
Even when Melanie returned home she still did not get over her depression. "She was becoming more entrapped than ever in her depressions, especially when her mother was visiting her. By May 1909 her fits of weeping and despair had reached such a point that she went to a sanatorium in Chur, Switzerland, for two and a half months in order to have a complete rest and change of scene...Melanie dreaded pregnancy..." Arthur at this time took the chance to leave the small town and move to Budapest. At this time Melanie's friend Klara was helping her be more assertive with her mother to take back the household and provided a role-model for emancipation. In her 30s she was pregnant again and had Erich, but everyone, including Libussa, were much older now. Libussa fell ill with cancer which was what was thought at the time due to her rapid weight loss. She contracted bronchitis and eventually passed away.
After her mother's death, Melanie wrote some minor works, including poetry and complete narratives. "Both poetry and prose are variations on a single theme: the longing of a woman for a richer and fuller life, particularly for sexual gratification, and the conflict that is stirred up by these forbidden wishes." Her wide reading eventually got her to Freud's works. "'About 1914' she read Freud’s 1901 paper on dreams, and realized immediately that 'that was what I was aiming at, at least during those years when I was so very keen to find what would satisfy me intellectually and emotionally. I entered into analysis with Ferenczi, who was the most outstanding Hungarian analyst.'" When she was with psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi, she became interested in learning how to practice psychoanalysis. He ended up influencing her later work in three areas: "the importance of raw and early emotion in the maternal bond, the importance of freedom and authenticity in the analytic relationship, and finally the use of transference and countertransference feelings." "During this analysis with Ferenczi, he drew my attention to my great gift for understanding children and my interest in them, and he very much encouraged my idea of devoting myself to analysis, particularly child-analysis. I had, of course, three children of my own at the time...I had not found…that education…could cover the whole understanding of the personality and therefore have the influence one might wish it to have. I had always the feeling that behind was something with which I could not come to grips."
Dreams - Sigmund Freud: https://rumble.com/v1gtf6j-dreams-sigmund-freud.html
Klein eventually became an assistant to Ferenczi and began observing her children. "Melitta and Hans had been brought up largely under the supervision of Libussa; but once Klein discovered psychoanalysis, [her son] Erich was subjected to the most intense scrutiny from at least the age of three. There is no reference to his infancy, a curious omission in view of her later theories." When her husband moved to Sweden to work and Melanie went back to Rosenberg, Slovakia, the separation led eventually to an official divorce. She eventually moved to Berlin and began a psychoanalysis practice. Melanie was very ambitious and began to publish because this was one of the ways to increase recognition and allow the possibility of freer travel in the future. It also explained the haste she felt to begin analyzing her children before taking on more analysands.
By the time she joined the The Hague Congress, she was in a very competitive attitude, and as expected professional territory was jealously guarded. She "met Hermine Hug-Hellmuth, who had already started analyzing children in Vienna by watching them at play...Klein tried to engage her in discussion, but was given a very cool reception. She later attributed this to Hug-Hellmuth’s view of her as a competitive threat, and any references Klein made to her tended to be extremely condescending." Klein already made her judgement. "Dr. Hug-Hellmuth was doing child analysis at this time in Vienna, but in a very restricted way. She completely avoided interpretations, though she used some play material and drawings, and I could never get an impression of what she was actually doing, nor was she analysing children under six or seven years. I do not think it too conceited to say that I introduced into Berlin the beginnings of child analysis."
Klein was now in a situation where she could attempt to find her place in psychoanalysis, but this is often when rivalry is at it's most intense, when a new system is discovered but it has yet to be exhausted, and there's a gold rush to stake an important claim, as can be seen by the explosion of new talent over the 20th century. "There was intense envy and rivalry among these early psychoanalytic pioneers...Klein’s career belonged in the category of those whose 'creative capacity may begin to show and express itself for the first time.'" Different analysts took a stand on whether child analysis was too dangerous. "Her creative potential, stifled for so many years, was finally unleashed, but she had to fight opposition every step of the way. For the historical record Klein claimed that once she arrived in Berlin, she soon widened her practice, but the fact of the matter is that she aroused misgivings among some of her colleagues. There was unease about the advisability of probing too deeply into a child’s unconscious...Apart from the consideration shown her by Abraham, she was always bitter about the way she was treated by the Berlin Society. Gradually some of her colleagues allowed her to analyze their children in what were known as 'prophylactic analyses.' In later life she complained that the only patients sent to her were children and the deeply disturbed relatives or patients of other analysts. Yet if it had not been for this, she might never have had the opportunity for intense observation of children." Regardless, she was right away aiming at changing parenting practices and cultural influences in schools so children could hopefully live a more liberated life and find their authenticity.
Repression
In The Development of a Child (1921), Melanie was very blunt and appeared to be on a mission to wipe out superstition and poor parenting practices, and in a way, abolish a form of parental abuse related to sexual shaming and ignorance. "The idea of enlightening children in sexual matters is steadily gaining ground. The instruction introduced in many places by the schools aims at protecting children during the age of puberty from the increasing dangers of ignorance, and it is from this point of view that the idea has won most sympathy and support...This ensures that wishes, thoughts and feelings shall not—as happened to us—be partly repressed and partly, in so far as repression fails, endured under a burden of false shame and nervous suffering." In her paper, she believed that developmentally appropriate sexual education allows children to build "...foundations for health and mental balance." Even though she renamed her son Erich to "Fritz," in her analysis of her son, the flimsy disguise was enough to fool many Kleinians. "The child in question is a boy, little Fritz, the son of relations who live in my immediate neighbourhood. This gave me the opportunity to be often in the child's company without any restraint. Further, as his mother follows all my recommendations I am able to exercise a far-reaching influence on the child's upbringing." When questioned with the evidence "one [Kleinian] said that she had always had the impression that 'the mother' in the background left something to be desired. Another said that he didn’t know what name to apply to this kind of analysis, but it had nothing to do with mothering. A third confessed rather poignantly that the revelation would make him reexamine the work he had been doing for thirty years since he now saw in a new light why Melanie Klein had underestimated the role of the mother. Many analysts had heard for years a rumor that she had analyzed her own children, but they had not linked this with actual case histories she had recorded. Elliott Jaques seems to take a sensible view: the exploration of the roots of anxiety could have been conducted initially in the only way open to her, and it is hindsight that queries its value. Pearl King (not a Kleinian) feels that it could have established 'a pathological transference'; but adds, 'to be fair, everyone was doing it at that time.'"
Klein proceeded to explain to young Erich the truth about Easter and Christmas activities and the agnostic worldview. She described a rudimentary explanation for copulation for humans and animals. The child's fantasies and games started turning more violent afterwards. "His games as well as his phantasies showed an extraordinary aggressiveness towards his father and also of course his already clearly indicated passion for his mother...Fritz listened with great interest and said, 'I would so much like to see how a child is made inside like that.' I explain that this is impossible until he is big because it can't be done till then but that then he will do it himself: 'But then I would like to do it to mamma.' 'That can't be, mamma can't be your wife for she is the wife of your papa, and then papa would have no wife.' 'But we could both do it to her.' I say, 'No, that can't be. Every man has only one wife. When you are big your mamma will be old. Then you will marry a beautiful young girl and she will be your wife.' He (nearly in tears and with quivering lips), 'But shan't we live in the same house together with mamma?' 'Certainly, and your mamma will always love you but she can't be your wife.' He then enquired about various details, how the child is 'fed in the maternal body, what the cord is made of how it comes away, he was full of interest and no further resistance was to be noticed. At the end he said, 'But I would just once like to see how the child gets in and out.'"
Melanie felt that this sample of one was already showing a therapeutic response compared to how other children were raised. "I am of the opinion that no upbringing should be without analytic help, because analysis affords such valuable and, from the point of view of prophylaxis, as yet incalculable assistance." The deficits for children she concluded were of a wide variety, including, being anti-social, aloof, apathy, lost self-confidence, and diffidence. "What early analysis can do is to afford protection from severe shocks and to overcome inhibitions. This will assist not only the health of the individual but culture as well, in that the overcoming of inhibitions will open up fresh possibilities of development. In the boy I watched it was striking how greatly his general interest was stimulated subsequent to the satisfying of a part of his unconscious questions, and how greatly his impulse for investigation flagged again because further unconscious questions had arisen and drawn his whole interest upon themselves. It is evident, therefore, that, to go more into detail, the effectiveness of wishes and instinctive impulses can only be weakened by becoming conscious. I can, however, state from my own observations that, just as in the case of the adult, so also with the young child this occurs without any danger...It is easier to control an emotion that is becoming conscious than one that is unconscious. Simultaneously with acknowledging his incest-wishes, however, he is already making attempts to free himself from this passion and to achieve its transference to suitable objects."
For researchers, this was before the later techniques that Melanie developed with play, but she was already seeing that unconscious questions, with realistic, concrete answers, allowed for better actions afterwards for the analysand. "Eric Klein remembers that when they went to Rosenberg in 1919, his mother set aside an hour every night before he went to sleep to analyze him and that she continued to do this after they moved to Berlin in 1920. He remarks dryly that he did not find the experience pleasurable, but he holds no grudge against her for it...It could be argued that Klein was more therapist than mother to Erich. He has no recollection of her playing with him, but she did hug him." In Analyst of the Imagination, Paul Roazen said of Melanie's daughter, "Melitta Schmideberg, would be at the extreme end of the spectrum of those who relished hatred of their mothers but, alas, not alone in her bitterness towards analytic parenting." Melitta did collaborate very closely with Melanie, had many great insights into psychoanalysis, but was clearly asserting her independence and wanting to move into different modalities to distinguish herself from her mother and get out from under her wing.
Even at the time of the paper, Klein did give herself an out because she found that anxiety wasn't only caused by complexes and that different children could face the same situations and react with more or less sensitivity. "For we learn from the analysis of neurotics that only a part of the injuries resulting from repression can be traced to wrong environmental or other prejudicial external conditions. Another and very important part is due to an attitude on the part of the child, present from the very tenderest years. The child frequently develops, on the basis of the repression of a strong sexual curiosity, an unconquerable disinclination to everything sexual that only a thorough analysis can later overcome. It is not always possible to discover from the analyses of adults—especially in a reconstruction—in how far the irksome conditions, in how far the neurotic predisposition, is responsible for the development of the neurosis. In this matter variable, indeterminate quantities are being dealt with. So much, however, is certain: that in strongly neurotic dispositions quite slight rebuffs from the environment often suffice to determine a marked resistance to all sexual enlightenment and a repression excessively burdensome to the mental constitution in general." This also appears in the school environment, especially during puberty when a boy for example is "bombarded by his sexuality, he feels himself at the mercy of wishes and desires which he cannot and may not satisfy." This may lead to a lack of zeal in school work, lack of ambition, and in extreme cases there may be criminality or suicide. "Expertly and correctly conducted, psycho-analysis holds no more danger for children than for adults; much 'successful work' with children convinces me of this. The widely-felt anxiety that analysis diminishes children's spontaneity is disproved in practice. Many children have had their liveliness fully restored by analysis after losing it in the welter of their conflicts. Even very early analysis does not turn children into uncultured and asocial beings. The' reverse is true; freed from inhibitions, they are now able to make full use of emotional and intellectual resources for cultural and social purposes, in the service of their development."
At this time Melanie was recording in her autobiography different stories as to when there was a divorce and it was obvious that she wanted out. "In 1919 Arthur Klein went to live and work in Sweden, and [Melanie] moved back from Budapest to Rosenberg with the children. Hungary was in turmoil; and she could see her own future only in negative terms: as she describes it, there seemed no possibility that she and Arthur could ever get together again." There was eventually a reunification of the family in Dahlem, but Arthur's attempts to regain control of the family led to him bullying Hans. "In addition to Arthur’s renewed tyranny, both his 'emotional attachment' in Sweden and her new career were incentives to attain the independence she had always half-consciously been seeking. She soon realized that a permanent separation was imperative. Yet to walk out on her husband was financially hazardous, and she risked losing custody of Erich. There were ugly quarrels. One day Erich saw a document lying on his father’s desk and could not resist reading it. It appeared that Arthur was going to seek to obtain custody of the boy on the grounds that his mother had used him as a guinea pig for her psychoanalytic experiments. When Erich told his mother about this, she said that Arthur had deliberately put the paper on the table where he knew Erich would see it." Melitta defended her mother against her father, but both mother and daughter were beginning to show envy and jealousy. Melanie was worried that her daughter who was able to pursue her studies earlier than she, was now in a position to surpass her before she could make her mark on history. They eventually collaborated and were able to produce good work together, but Melitta would later on introduce insightful critiques on the limits of psychoanalysis and poke fun at the snobbery, foolishness, and scandals in the psychoanalytical communities, as well as patients who expected a panacea from the method, and eventually found a better fit when she moved more into studying juvenile delinquency. She also entered into analysis with Edward Glover for a time who was mourning the disconnection between the British school and Freud's Orthodoxy. In The War Inside, Michal Shapira said that "initially, Melitta made frequent use of her mother’s ideas. Later, and as she went to analysis with Glover, her criticism of Klein grew. She withdrew from active participation in the BPAS in 1944." Later psychoanalysts viewed Melitta's and Edward's complaints as a form of stuffiness. In reality there was always a new kind of stuffiness replacing an older kind. All therapists tend to react to positive results in their patients as confirmation of efficacy of one method or another and each positive experience would lead therapists to pick their favorite modality, either orthodox, British, or American. Despite the hair splitting, Klein continued her work with children and studied the effects of the Oedipus Complex.
School Castration
Despite all these fearful Freudian terms and symbols, the best way to read and enjoy psychoanalytic descriptions is to understand the underlying viewpoint, which is Darwinian, and therefore it is about territory, power, control, and procreation. Libido is energetic craving, and we have many cravings that aren't overtly sexual. You can crave sunlight if you are indoors for too long, for example. The cravings want to feed physically with food, but there is sexual feeding and emotional feeding of all kinds. The mistake is to take things too literally and think everything is about overt sexuality, when it's more teleological. The child could feel "castrated" at school for example, but is not actually castrated, but instead is humiliated by the teacher in class when providing a stupid answer that is ridiculous and funny. The purpose of school is to have success in the workplace. Success in the workplace makes you more attractive as a provider and you will have more sexual partners to choose from as you gain more wealth, fame, and notoriety. It all connects to sex in that way, so there are many degrees of separation, but these innocuous activities can be the supports that are required before one becomes attractive, if ever. Being castrated is like being turned off, demoralized, like how you would feel when you are sternly rejected on a date or you were dumped after a long attachment or you went through a divorce. You're not likely to be in the mood for some time, whereas someone who achieved success and wants to celebrate, they will more likely be looking for a sexual partner because of their newfound confidence. If a person finds sexual partners an imposition to personal fulfillment in work or hobbies, many will put their love into work, artistic projects or leisure activities.
In The Role of the School in the Libidinal Development of the Child, Melanie pointed out that "...fear of examinations in dreams as in reality, is the fear of castration...[for students]." Boys and girls are afraid of being made fun of and they sometimes have fears related to how masculine or feminine they should appear. Just like adults, the kids can make associations and metaphors out of anything so dreams, daydreaming, and doodling will likely connect with other areas of their life where they are measuring how well they are doing at school, socializing, and with relationships at home. With kids, analyses with Klein showed a lot of Oedipus material, death wishes for parents, fornication with parents, along with jokes about private parts, toilet jokes and early birthing theories. Having trouble completing difficult school tasks is a feeling of impotence, whereas success leads to feelings of potency. "I have endeavoured to show that the fundamental activities exercised at schools are channels for the flow of libido and that by this means the component instincts achieve sublimation under the supremacy of the genitals. This libidinal [emotional investment], however, is carried over from the most elementary studies—reading, writing and arithmetic—to wider efforts and interests based upon these, so that the foundations of later inhibitions—of vocational inhibition as well—are to be found; above all, in the frequently apparently evanescent ones concerned with the earliest studies. The inhibitions of these earliest studies, however, are built upon play-inhibitions, so that in the end—we can see all the later inhibitions, so significant for life and development, evolving from the earliest play-inhibitions." So not being able to play at a rudimentary level for a particular field, like math, or history, means an unsuccessful sublimation of libido. For Klein, it goes back to fear of humiliation. "Castration-fear interferes with ego-activities and interests because, besides other libidinal determinants, they always have fundamentally a genital symbolic, that is to say, a coitus significance...We must refer the establishment of all the inhibitions which affect learning and all further development to the time of the first efflorescence of infantile sexuality which, with the onset of the Oedipus complex, gives its greatest momentum to the castration-fear, that is, to the early period between three and four years of age. It is the consequent repression of the active masculine components in both boys and girls that provides the chief basis for inhibitions of learning...The contribution which the feminine component makes to sublimation will probably always prove to be receptivity and understanding, which are an important part of all activities; the driving executive part, however, which really constitutes the character of any activity, originates in the sublimation of masculine potency." Here we can see a development from Ferenczi, who separated masculine and feminine energies into different tasks and interests, whereas Klein saw that most activities could be done with a mixture and both boys and girls could use femininity or masculinity without it appearing pathological.
Aphex Twin - Come To Daddy (Director's Cut): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZ827lkktYs
Case Studies: 'Little Hans' - Sigmund Freud: https://rumble.com/v1gu93b-case-studies-little-hans-sigmund-freud.html
Sexuality Pt 2: Infantile Sexuality - Sigmund Freud: https://rumble.com/v1gtort-sexuality-pt-2-infantile-sexuality-sigmund-freud.html
Totem and Taboo - Sigmund Freud: https://rumble.com/v1gsmvn-totem-and-taboo-sigmund-freud.html
Melanie followed the typical Freudian view that creativity is essentially feminine and that both sexes needed to free up that libido as well as the masculine. "I was able repeatedly in analyses of boys and girls to see how important the repression of this feminine attitude through the castration complex might be. As an essential part of every activity, repression of it must contribute largely to the inhibition of any activity. It has also been possible to observe in analysing patients of both sexes how, as a part of the castration complex became conscious and the feminine attitude appeared more freely, there often occurred a powerful onset of artistic and other interests...Part of the inhibitions—and this is the more important for later development—resulting from the repression of genital activity directly affects ego activity and interest as such. Another part of the inhibitions results from the attitude to the teacher." For example, a male teacher could receive transference attitudes from a boy about his father, and since success is connected with sex with the mother figure in the Oedipus Complex, then the fear of fatherly retribution may appear as inhibition to perform well in front of the male teacher. "In girls the inhibition due to the castration complex and affecting all activity is of particular importance. The relationship to a male teacher that can be so burdensome to the boy acts on the girl, if her capabilities are not too inhibited, rather as an incentive. In her relationship to the mistress the anxiety attitude originating in the Oedipus complex is, in general, not nearly so powerful as is its analogue in the boy. That her achievements in life do not usually attain to those of the man is due to the fact that in general she has less masculine activity to employ in sublimation...The teacher can achieve much by sympathetic understanding, for he is able thereby considerably to reduce that part of the inhibition that attaches to the person of the teacher as 'avenger'. At the same time, the wise and kindly teacher offers the homosexual component in the boy and the masculine component of the girl an object for the exercise of their genital activity in a sublimated form, as which, as I suggested, we can recognize the various studies." As much as the teacher can reward both masculine and feminine energies, the children are bringing their complexes to school and would benefit from therapy in the view of Klein. "Where, however, repression of genital activity has affected the occupations and interests themselves, the attitude of the teacher can probably diminish (or intensify) the child's inner conflict, but will not affect anything essential as concerns his attainments. But even the possibility of a good teacher easing the conflict is a very slight one, for limits are set by the child's complex-formations, particularly by his relationship to his father, which determines beforehand his attitude towards school and teacher."
Developing The Self
The opportunities available in childhood to carve out skills, talents, and budding vocations, is a precious time because of how far reaching the impacts are in later life. This especially will echo in many later psychoanalysts when talking about the topic of authenticity. Certainly there can be economic disadvantages during this period and they limit what a child can develop, but finances don't guarantee authenticity if play, trial and error, and discovery is repressed. "We frequently find in psycho-analysis that neurotic inhibitions of talents are determined by repression having overtaken the libidinal ideas associated with these particular activities, and thus at the same time the activities themselves." For Klein, these inhibitions appeared in very typical demotivated states that children often present. "The following characteristics proved in a number of cases and in a typical way to be inhibitions: awkwardness in games and athletics and distaste for them, little or no pleasure in lessons, lack of interest in one particular subject, or, in general, the varying degrees of so-called laziness; very often, too, capacities or interests which were feebler than the ordinary turned out to be 'inhibited'".
You get the sense from psychoanalytic literature that scoring in soccer is like scoring in bed. The symbolism can be made to be overt by making it conscious and then using the lust and love feelings to fuel a sublimated task and derive proximate satisfaction. Even if people have to bring up lustful imagery in their minds transfer it into boring activities, there's a hinted practice in these texts that assume we should have already known this from the beginning in childhood play. Having "libidinal cathexis" is to have an emotional investment in a particular activity, like a sport, meaning simply that you like the sport. There's been so much inhibition throughout childhood, and not all of it is bad in the case of criminal activity, but if someone meditates, takes drugs or alcohol, or even engages in free association practices, which are a little like meditation, when inhibition is released momentarily a zeal can return in an anticipation of engaging in an activity, and possibly other activities that have been repressed. "I came to see that in far the greater number of these inhibitions, whether they were recognizable as such or not, the work of reversing the mechanism was accomplished by way of anxiety, and in particular by the 'dread of castration'; only when this anxiety was resolved was it possible to make any progress in removing the inhibition...By successful removal I do not simply mean that the inhibitions as such should be diminished or removed, but that the analysis should succeed in reinstating the primary pleasure of the activity." A success would then be that a person can see the enjoyment of the repressed activity and it can be engaged in again with appropriateness according to skill. Maybe a person will enjoy watching soccer if they have no facility to play it well enough to enjoy.
Just like with substances that relieve inhibitions, the zeal doesn't always arise first. There are "transitory symptoms" connected to the Castration Complex, where anger and hostility arise. Analysands begin to re-live the people and environments of the past where the intimidation occurred. "These again were principally resolved by way of anxiety. The fact that the removing of these inhibitions and symptoms takes place by way of anxiety surely shows that anxiety is their source." She quoted Franz Alexander who valued the emotional catharsis, or abreaction in the psychoanalytical experience. People needed to express their emotions by reliving the experience, understanding intellectually the impact of the castration and feel the emotions related, as if they were happening during the analysis. "Most of the suggested innovations in psychoanalytic technique involve a one-sided overemphasis on one or the other of two factors, both of which are essential for the curative effect of psychoanalytic therapy. These factors are emotional abreaction and intellectual insight. Emotional abreaction leads only to temporary symptomatic relief (as in the early hysteria analyses of Freud). On the other hand, intellectual insight without emotional experience is of little value. Every correct interpretation, 'serves both purposes,' integrating abreaction and insight into a single act." If at this point an analysand expresses the emotion fully of the castrating incident and discharges through venting, then the intellectual insight would focus on the activity more based on skill rather than just a hatred of the activity. The activity loses its sense of evil and looks more a matter of fact. All activities have easier and more complex parts to them. When in hatred only the complex parts are noticed. In a neutral view, or a positive view, there are easier elements to the skill that begin to show themselves as opportunities for growth.
Regardless of the method, skills will still have to be developed afterwards if the patient has a reason to take up the activity. There's also no guarantee that there won't be more authority figures providing fresh castration that an apprentice has to learn to ignore and focus instead with a learning mentality. The intellectual insight needs to catch authority figures in their jealousy, and to understand that they are afraid of being replaced. In many technical and professional jobs, knowledge that can't be found in books is jealously guarded and castration will be the norm until an authority figure is to move onto better opportunities and has to train an apprentice. At that point, the envy of students and candidates will be expressed as they wonder why they weren't chosen to be trained further. Certainly, the understudy that shows the most promise is sometimes taken on because they are viewed to be unstoppable and capable of changing organizations, make new professional connections, and compete directly with the master. The master then wants to control the trajectory of the prodigy, and also they want to bask in their future success. In other cases, there is nepotism, cronyism, and various other forms of bigotry, because the master wants to make a political statement and reward an inner circle and gain a future ally, if there are to be synergies in their professional work. As many students will attest, the psychology profession is full of patients at various levels of pathology so the envy tends to be directed against healthier psychologists with endless attempts at castration, because the envious feel the pain that they may never be cured completely, and those who are considered more pathetic are made fun of and castrated because they are seen as too incompetent to practice. Those who are more healthy have to decide if they want to join another profession that has a healthier culture, or walk the tightrope and network in the best places possible for development. Those who are more incompetent, and therefore in need of both therapy and training, they either leave the profession for something more appropriate, or they congregate around groups and leaders that require their fawning. Their pathologies, if not too severe, are sometimes considered a badge of honor and hopefully provide a secret knowledge and special empathy for patients that are one step behind them in therapy.
Whether you want to call it a "comfort zone" that protects against the anxiety of growth, or the Default Mode Network, "teleologically considered, the symptoms of illness serve the purpose of satisfying, in a relatively harmless manner, those wishes that are in conflict with the conscious ego, of localizing them to the symptoms, and thereby preventing them from injuring the rest of life...Driven by their instinctual tendencies perpetually to injure themselves in life, [analysands] do not fall ill of a neurosis simply because, by means of their apparently senseless self-injuries, they replace the symbolic overcompensations (self -punishments) of the obsessional neurotic by real ones, and in this way keep their oversensitive consciences clear." The consequences for Alexander in one case study was self-sabotage in a patient's failing business while not being able to earn as much money as he did before in the employment he got afterwards. Finding easier employment may reduce anxiety, but it can also be a regression. What I like about Alexander is how he connects libido to money. Even saving money can be a way of delaying cravings for later consumption. Investing is a way of giving people access to their cravings for either their business spending or current consumption. The saver is delaying gratification so they can earn investment income and have a greater consumption in the future. On the other hand, if things are really financially bad you can be too poor, castrated, and turned off to have intimate relationships and the mental health results are even worse if a patient can't find a suitable sublimation. If it gets to rock bottom, then any money that is received goes into an addiction that further prevents gainful employment and there is a possibility of a vicious cycle of homelessness. In less extremes, people find themselves in divorces and they have to downgrade their expectations and find genital relief with less desirable partners while earning a less desirable wage.
Two Days, One Night Official Trailer - Dr. Lorri Sulpizio: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tb3zBq6gVRk
For those who want to control their mind more, the way to transform libido, or cravings, into sublimation, is to have different cravings, just like how the sense of self is manipulated by advertisers. There's an "I" in the future that is savoring, and it's working when you can FEEL craving to do that particular activity. If the sublimation is strong, the activity is so interesting that you are not thinking about intimate relationships.
Object Relations: Fear Of Success Pt. 6: https://rumble.com/v3mc0jy-object-relations-fear-of-success-pt.-6.html
If you eventually get courageous and try to move out of the comfort zone you can feel out the blockage. "We know that anxiety is one of the primary affects. 'I have said that transformation into anxiety—it would be better to say discharge in the form of anxiety—is the immediate vicissitude of libido which is subjected to repression.' In thus reacting with anxiety the ego repeats the affect which at birth became the prototype—of all anxiety and employs it as 'the universally current coinage for which any affective impulse is or can be exchanged.' The discovery of how the ego tries in the different neuroses to shield itself from the development of anxiety led Freud to conclude that 'It would thus seem not to be wrong in an abstract sense to assert that in general, symptoms are only formed to escape an otherwise unavoidable generating of anxiety." Anxiety of course can go unconscious, when repression is successful. If it's not successful there is visible anxiety. When it's unconscious, it's ready and waiting to produce anxiety but the analysand is outside of the challenging environment and can find another activity that is accessible for sublimation. Then when the patient goes again closer to the repressing situation, anxiety begins to return, like how people behave in a phobia. Psychoanalysts also feel that some patients are better at sublimating than others, for example, some are more creative, have more interesting hobbies, and can maintain well-being. This may be due to a good enough upbringing so that there's enough of a self to play with the environment to prevent feeling always empty inside emotionally. "If we equate the capacity to employ superfluous libido [craving] in a cathexis [emotional investment] of ego-tendencies with the capacity to sublimate, we may probably assume that the person who remains healthy succeeds in doing so on account of his greater capacity for sublimating at a very early stage of his ego-development." This means that some who are not inhibited will be in a healthy intimate relationship, in a job they like, or are good at, and any variations outside of that will be progressively worse outcomes, but some of those outcomes will be healthy because the analysand has vigorous activities they engage in, but those who cannot get into an intimate relationship or sublimate with skill, they will have the worst outcome for loneliness and depression.
Intimidation has also an element of control because it can be used to dominate an environment. Transference from a passive target can then anticipate castrations and avoid adventurism towards libido satisfactions precisely to avoid any other people who radiate the same power to punish. For example, a parent could bully a child and then that child becomes a prime target for future bullies because they continuously send the signal of passivity. "We know that the Oedipus complex brings repression into play with quite peculiar force and at the same time liberates the dread of castration. We may probably also assume that this great 'wave' of anxiety 'is reinforced by anxiety already existing (possibly only as a potential disposition) in consequence of earlier repressions—this latter anxiety may have operated directly as castration-anxiety originating in the 'primal castrations.'"
These castrations can lead to inauthentic desires where what you would like to pursue anticipates punishment and the area of choices provided by society where there are no punishments become the limited choices where one finds replacement satisfactions. This can be good when dealing with criminality, but it becomes a dystopian tyrannical society when rewards are being stripped from the populace to coalesce around a predator. Eventually success, or rewards, can be associated with punishment leading to the inhibitions just stated, which can be a block to self-development and move it into other areas based on self-preservation. Doing things only as a means to an end. A transfer from sexual instincts to self-preservation instincts. "The pleasure-principle allows us to compare two otherwise quite different objects on the basis of a similitude of pleasurable tone, or of interests. But we are probably justified in assuming that on the other hand these objects and activities, not in themselves sources of pleasure, become so through this identification, a sexual pleasure being displaced onto them. Then, when repression begins to operate and the step from identification to symbol-formation is taken, symbol-formation, [for example] libidinal phantasies becoming fixated in sexual-symbolic fashion upon particular objects, activities and interests, it is [symbol-formation] which affords an opportunity for libido to be displaced on to other objects and activities of the self-preservative instincts, not originally possessing a pleasurable tone. Here we arrive at the mechanism of sublimation..." For example, if a person has trouble with sexual symbolism, then connecting with a feeling of satisfaction after eating can be used for finishing projects or tasks. You need to find feelings of love or savoring to connect to the project, which would more normally be seeing oneself, identifying, and imagining savoring a benefit related to finishing that task or project. What's the meaning? What's the benefit? What's the payoff? What is the wish that would be enjoyable to fulfill? What is beautiful? What is precious, cute, endearing or treasured? What should be preserved for the future? In a way, Melanie was studying authenticity in activities and relationships so that those children would be luckier than she was.
The Pleasure Principle - Sigmund Freud: https://rumble.com/v1gurqv-the-pleasure-principle-sigmund-freud.html
Object Relations: Fear Of Success Pt. 1: https://rumble.com/v1gvsvj-object-relations-fear-of-success-pt.-1.html
By 1924, it was clear the marriage wasn't working for the Kleins'. At that time Melanie moved to Berlin and there ensued a custody battle. "There is a widespread belief that Arthur Klein disappeared into Sweden, never to return. In actual fact he continued to live in the Dahlem house until 1937, when he moved to Switzerland, where he died in 1939. He remarried not long after the divorce ('disastrously,' according to Eric Clyne, since he was again divorced within a few years), and there was a daughter by the marriage. According to his son, Arthur Klein was subsequently looked after by a series of housekeepers."
Melanie Klein Trust: https://melanie-klein-trust.org.uk/
Love, Guilt and Reparation: And Works 1921-1945 (The Writings of Melanie Klein, Volume 1) by Melanie Klein: https://www.isbns.net/isbn/9780743237659/
The New Dictionary of Kleinian Thought by Elizabeth Bott Spillius, Jane E. Milton, Penelope Garvey, Cyril Couve, Deborah Steiner: https://www.isbns.net/isbn/9780415592598/
Melanie Klein by Penelope Garvey: https://www.isbns.net/isbn/9781032105246/
Melanie Klein: Her World and Her Work by Phyllis Grosskurth: https://www.isbns.net/isbn/9781568214450/
Analyst of the Imagination by Jenny Pearson: https://www.isbns.net/isbn/9781855759046/
The War Inside by Michal Shapira: https://www.isbns.net/isbn/9781107035133/
Hernandez-Halton I. Klein, Ferenczi and the clinical diary. Am J Psychoanal. 2015 Mar;75(1):76-85.
Psychology: http://psychreviews.org/category/psychology01/
#abreaction#catharsis#child psychology#divorce#education#femininity#franz alexander#karl abraham#masculinity#melanie klein#object relations#oedipus complex#pedagogy#playpsychology#psychoanalysis#repression#sandor ferenczi#sublimation#teaching
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Systems of Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of beauty, art, and taste, as well as the creation and appreciation of works of art. It is concerned with questions about the nature of beauty, the criteria for judging aesthetic value, and the ways in which aesthetic experience can contribute to our understanding of the world and our place within it. Aesthetics is also concerned with the relationship between art and the broader cultural, social, and historical contexts in which it is produced and consumed.
There are several contemporary systems or branches of aesthetics, including:
Analytic aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is grounded in the methods and theories of analytic philosophy, and is focused on the analysis of aesthetic concepts, such as beauty, taste, and artistic value.
Phenomenological aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is grounded in the methods and theories of phenomenology, and is focused on the subjective experience of art and aesthetic phenomena.
Postmodern aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that emerged in the late 20th century, and is focused on challenging traditional aesthetic categories and concepts, and exploring the role of power and politics in aesthetic judgments.
Feminist aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on examining the role of gender in aesthetic judgments and practices, and on exploring the ways in which traditional aesthetic concepts and categories have been shaped by patriarchal norms and values.
Environmental aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on the relationship between aesthetics and the natural environment, and on exploring the aesthetic value of natural landscapes, as well as the ways in which human activities affect the environment.
Neuroaesthetics: This is an interdisciplinary approach to aesthetics that draws on neuroscience, psychology, and other fields, and is focused on understanding the neural and cognitive mechanisms that underlie aesthetic experiences.
Evolutionary aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is grounded in evolutionary biology, and is focused on exploring the evolutionary origins of aesthetic preferences and judgments.
Digital aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the aesthetics of digital media, such as video games, virtual reality, and computer-generated art.
Cognitive aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on the cognitive processes that underlie aesthetic experiences, and on exploring the ways in which cognitive science can contribute to our understanding of aesthetics.
Aesthetic ethics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the ethical dimensions of art and aesthetic practices, and on examining the ways in which aesthetic experiences can shape our moral values and judgments.
Critical race aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the role of race and racism in aesthetic judgments and practices, and on challenging the Eurocentric assumptions that have shaped traditional aesthetic categories.
Postcolonial aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the aesthetic traditions and practices of formerly colonized cultures, and on examining the ways in which colonialism has shaped aesthetic values and judgments.
Animal aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the aesthetic experiences of non-human animals, and on examining the ways in which our understanding of aesthetics can be extended beyond the human realm.
Empirical aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is grounded in empirical research, and is focused on studying the psychological and physiological responses to aesthetic stimuli.
Marxist aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the role of class and social structures in shaping aesthetic values and judgments, and on examining the ways in which art reflects and reproduces social relations.
Hermeneutic aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on the interpretation of art and aesthetic experience, and on examining the ways in which we make meaning out of aesthetic objects and practices.
Affective aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the emotional and affective dimensions of aesthetic experience, and on examining the ways in which art and aesthetics can elicit emotional responses.
Embodied aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on the embodied and sensory dimensions of aesthetic experience, and on examining the ways in which our bodily experiences shape our aesthetic judgments and preferences.
Ecological aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the relationship between human beings and the natural world, and on examining the ways in which aesthetics can contribute to environmental ethics and sustainability.
Disability aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the aesthetic experiences of people with disabilities, and on examining the ways in which our understanding of aesthetics can be expanded to include the perspectives of marginalized groups.
Global aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the diversity of aesthetic practices and traditions around the world, and on examining the ways in which globalization and cultural exchange are shaping aesthetic values and judgments.
Queer aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the role of queer identity and experience in aesthetic judgments and practices, and on challenging heteronormative assumptions that have shaped traditional aesthetic categories.
Performance aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the nature of performance, and on examining the ways in which performance can be a medium for artistic expression and aesthetic experience.
Sound aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the nature of sound, and on examining the ways in which sound can be a medium for artistic expression and aesthetic experience.
Virtual aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the aesthetic experiences of virtual and digital media, and on examining the ways in which technology is shaping our understanding of art and aesthetics.
Multimodal aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the ways in which different modes of sensory perception and expression interact to create aesthetic experience, and on examining the ways in which the integration of multiple modes can expand our understanding of aesthetics.
Posthuman aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on examining the ways in which our understanding of aesthetics is being transformed by advances in biotechnology, artificial intelligence, and other forms of posthuman technology.
Everyday aesthetics: This is an approach to aesthetics that is focused on exploring the aesthetic dimensions of everyday life, and on examining the ways in which aesthetic experiences can be found in the ordinary and mundane aspects of our lives.
Some traditional systems of aesthetics include:
Formalism: This approach emphasizes the formal properties of works of art, such as their arrangement of lines, colors, and shapes, and the ways in which these properties contribute to our aesthetic experience of the work.
Expressionism: This approach emphasizes the emotional or expressive qualities of works of art, and the ways in which they communicate feelings, moods, or attitudes.
Realism: This approach emphasizes the representational qualities of works of art, and the ways in which they accurately depict or portray the world around us.
Pragmatism: This approach emphasizes the practical or functional qualities of works of art, and the ways in which they can serve practical purposes or contribute to our everyday lives.
Aestheticism: This approach emphasizes the importance of aesthetic experience and the pursuit of beauty for its own sake, independent of any practical or moral considerations.
Imitationalism: This approach emphasizes the importance of art as a form of imitation or representation, and the ways in which works of art can capture and convey the essence or appearance of their subjects.
Symbolism: This approach emphasizes the use of symbols in art, and the ways in which works of art can communicate complex ideas, emotions, or experiences through the use of symbolic imagery.
Objectivism: This approach emphasizes the objective qualities of beauty and the ways in which aesthetic judgments can be based on objective criteria.
Subjectivism: This approach emphasizes the subjective or personal nature of aesthetic experience, and the ways in which our aesthetic judgments are influenced by our individual preferences, emotions, and attitudes.
Institutionalism: This approach emphasizes the role of cultural institutions, such as museums and galleries, in shaping our understanding and appreciation of art. It also examines the ways in which social and cultural contexts influence our aesthetic judgments.
Ethical aesthetics: This approach emphasizes the relationship between aesthetics and ethics, and the ways in which our aesthetic judgments are influenced by our moral and ethical beliefs.
Historical aesthetics: This approach emphasizes the importance of historical context in understanding and interpreting works of art, and the ways in which artistic styles and movements have evolved over time.
Formalist modernism: This approach emphasizes the importance of formal innovation and experimentation in modern art, and the ways in which modernist artists sought to push the boundaries of traditional art forms.
Structuralism: This approach emphasizes the underlying structures and systems that shape our perception and interpretation of works of art, and the ways in which these structures influence our aesthetic judgments.
Hermeneutics: This approach emphasizes the importance of interpretation and understanding in our aesthetic engagement with works of art, and the ways in which our interpretation of a work can shape our aesthetic experience of it.
Psychoanalytic aesthetics: This approach emphasizes the importance of the unconscious mind and psychological processes in shaping our aesthetic judgments and experiences of art.
These approaches offer a broad range of perspectives on the nature and significance of aesthetics, and each approach brings its own unique set of questions and concerns to the study of aesthetics. Together, they contribute to a rich and diverse understanding of aesthetics as a field of inquiry.
#philosophy#epistemology#aesthetics#knowledge#learning#ontology#beauty#art#education#systems#chatgpt#approaches
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Forensic Science: Unveiling the Secrets Behind Crime
For students in India seeking a stimulating and challenging career path after 12th grade, forensic science offers a unique blend of science, criminal justice, and problem-solving. This interdisciplinary field applies principles and techniques from biology, chemistry, physics, and other natural sciences to analyze evidence and solve crimes.
Unveiling the Educational Pathway
Most universities in India offer a 3-year Bachelor of Science (BSc) program in Forensic Science after 12th grade. The curriculum covers foundational areas like forensic chemistry, toxicology, ballistics, fingerprinting, DNA profiling, and crime scene investigation and documentation. Students gain a working knowledge of scientific theories and laboratory techniques through classroom lectures and hands-on laboratory practicals.
Those with a keen interest and a strong foundation in science can pursue a 2-year Master of Science (MSc) program in Forensic Science. This postgraduate program allows for specialization in a particular sub-discipline of forensic science, such as:
Forensic Anthropology: Examining skeletal remains to determine identity, cause of death, and time since death.
Forensic Psychology: Applying psychological principles to criminal investigations and legal proceedings.
Cyber Forensics: Investigating crimes that involve digital evidence.
Questioned Document Analysis: Examining documents to determine their authenticity and identify forgeries.
A World of Career Opportunities Awaits
A degree in forensic science opens doors to a diverse range of exciting career opportunities across various sectors:
Forensic Science Laboratory Analyst: Analyze evidence in a laboratory setting, such as biological fluids, fibers, drugs, and materials.
Crime Scene Investigator (CSI): Respond to crime scenes, collect and preserve evidence, and document the scene.
Ballistics Expert: Examine firearms and ammunition to determine their origin and link them to crimes.
Forensic Toxicologist: Analyze biological samples to detect the presence of drugs and poisons.
Fingerprint Examiner: Analyze fingerprints lifted from crime scenes to identify suspects.
DNA Analyst: Process and analyze DNA evidence to link suspects to crime scenes or exonerate the innocent.
Forensic Document Examiner: Analyze questioned documents to determine their authenticity and identify forgeries.
Forensic Psychologist: Provide psychological expertise in criminal investigations and legal proceedings, assess offenders, and evaluate victims.
University Researchers and Professors: Contribute to the advancement of forensic science through research and teaching future generations of forensic scientists.
The Growing Demand for Forensic Professionals
With the increasing application of forensic science in criminal investigations and the legal system, the demand for skilled forensic science professionals is on the rise in India. This demand is being fueled by factors such as:
Growing awareness of the importance of forensic science in the criminal justice system
Advancements in forensic technologies
The increasing complexity of crimes, which often involve digital evidence
A Rewarding Career Path for Science Enthusiasts
A career in forensic science is ideal for students with a passion for science, an analytical mind, and a keen eye for detail. It offers the opportunity to play a vital role in the criminal justice system by helping to solve crimes, bring perpetrators to justice, and exonerate the innocent. If you are looking for a challenging and rewarding career path that makes a real difference in the world, then forensic science is definitely worth considering.
Additional Tips
Develop strong communication and interpersonal skills: Forensic scientists frequently collaborate with law enforcement officers, attorneys, and other professionals. The ability to communicate complex scientific information in a clear and concise manner is essential.
Gain practical experience through internships: Many universities and forensic science laboratories offer internship opportunities for students. These internships provide valuable hands-on experience and can help you solidify your career goals.
Stay up-to-date with the latest advancements in forensic science: The field of forensic science is constantly evolving, with new technologies and techniques being developed all the time. It is important to stay up-to-date with the latest advancements through continuing education and professional development opportunities.
With a degree in forensic science and a commitment to professional development, you can forge a successful and fulfilling career in this fascinating field.
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Hegemonic masculinity - Wikipedia
In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity is part of R. W. Connell's gender order theory, which recognizes multiple masculinities that vary across time, society, culture, and the individual.[1][2][3] Hegemonic masculinity is defined as a practice that legitimizes men's dominant position in society and justifies the subordination of the common male population and women, and other marginalized ways of being a man.[1][4] Conceptually, hegemonic masculinity proposes to explain how and why men maintain dominant social roles over women, and other gender identities, which are perceived as "feminine" in a given society.[1]
As a sociological concept, the nature of hegemonic masculinity derives from the theory of cultural hegemony, by Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci, which analyses the power relations among the social classes of a society. Hence, in the term hegemonic masculinity, the adjective hegemonic refers to the cultural dynamics by means of which a social group claims, and sustains, a leading and dominant position in a social hierarchy; nonetheless, hegemonic masculinity embodies a form of social organization that has been sociologically challenged and changed.
The conceptual beginnings of hegemonic masculinity represented the culturally idealized form of manhood that was socially and hierarchically exclusive and concerned with bread-winning; that was anxiety-provoking and differentiated (internally and hierarchically); that was brutal and violent, pseudo-natural and tough, psychologically contradictory, and thus crisis-prone; economically rich and socially sustained.[5] However, many sociologists criticized that definition of hegemonic masculinity as a fixed character-type, which is analytically limited, because it excludes the complexity of different, and competing, forms of masculinity.[1][3] Consequently, hegemonic masculinity was reformulated to include gender hierarchy, the geography of masculine configurations, the processes of social embodiment, and the psycho-social dynamics of the varieties of masculinity.
Proponents of the concept of hegemonic masculinity argue that it is conceptually useful for understanding gender relations, and is applicable to life-span development, education, criminology, the representations of masculinity in the mass communications media, the health of men and women, and the functional structure of organizations.[3] Critics argue that hegemonic masculinity is heteronormative, is not self-reproducing, ignores positive aspects of masculinity, relies on a flawed underlying concept of masculinity, or is too ambiguous to have practical application.
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