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mission-to-dietitian · 7 months

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STATE OF SHOCK AND INJURY: A release of the catecholamine epinephrine suppresses response to insulin.

Basal metabolic rate increases 7% for every degree rise in fever.

OBESITY: Obesity starts at a BMI of 30kg/m^2 (3 classes of obesity. BMI of 40kg/m^2 or > is Class III obesity). There are 3,500 calories per pound of body fat, so start with a deficit of 500cal/day for weight loss of 1 pound per week.

Initial rapid weight loss is water weight, due to glycogen stores pulled out from the liver (for every gram of carbohydrate stored, 3g of H2O are stored w/it)

You cannot spot lose fat. Plateau (can't continue to lose weight) occurs because BMR has dropped in order to match loss of weight.

DEFICIENCIES: stomatitis due to riboflavin (B2) deficiency

PREGNANCY: Pregnancy-induced hypertension begins at 20th week. But sodium restriction NOT recommended as the intervention.

TUBE FEEDS: Deadly to feed into an ileus. Elemental formulas = more expensive.

4-hour hang time for open systems (concern for pathogenic activity/growth). 24-48 hours for closed systems.

Nasogastric tube for short-term enteral access (for those with NORMAL GI function who require nutrition support for 3-4 weeks). Bolus, intermittent, or continuous infusions.

Naso-duodenal OR naso-jejunal feeds for those unable to tolerate gastric tube feed (recall it is best to do gastric if possible to mimic body's natural eating functions).

Give 1cc of H2O per calorie ingested. Formulas that are 1 calorie per cc are 80-86% water.

Peripheral parenteral nutrition (AKA total parenteral nutrition/TPN -- LAST resort due to the fact that it is like foie gras to the body, with implications of liver issues developing) is via small surface veins, which is short-term nutrition support. Includes protein and fat (a 10% solution of intravenous fat provides 1.1 calories per cc. A 20% solution provides 2.0 calories per cc. Think about propofol, delivered in a fat medium).

Solutions have dextrose, which provides 3.4 cal/g.

# of calories from a volume of dextrose = mL provided × % dextrose × 3.4

PPN/TPN is used to achieve anabolism when patients cannot eat by mouth and you cannot do an enteral tube feed.

Long-term central access occurs via cephalic, subclavian, or internal jugular vein and feed ls into superior vena cava.

PPN/TPN concerns: Bacterial translocation because you are bypassing the gut, which would normally kill bacteria that is ingested per os. Bacteria can travel through bloodstream and lead to SEPSIS.

In TPN, protein is provided for anabolism at 1g of nitrogen for every 150 calories ingested. The percent concentration tells you # of grams of protein per in 100mL of TPN solution (a 3% solution provides 3g of protein in 100mL of TPN solution).

Glucose infusion rate for dextrose in TPN should not exceed 4-5mg/kg/min for hyperglycemia prevention.

Fat is added to prevent essential fatty acid deficiency.

Begin tapering TPN for EN slowly, when enteral feeds provide 1/3 to 1/2 of nutrient requirements. When 60% of needs can be tolerated enterally, discontinue TPN.

BEWARE OF REFEEDING SYNDROME (starved cells take up nutrients, shifting K+, phos, and magnesium into the cell, causing HYPOKALEMIA, HYPOPHOSPHATEMIA, and HYPOMAGNESEMIA).

Overfeeding dextrose can lead to hyperglycemia

Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) reflects current population needs.

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is goals for healthy individuals.

Estimated Average Requiremenr (EAR) assesses group nutritional adequacy.

Upper Limit (UL) offers guidance on safe upper limits for nutrients such as vitamins.

Dietary Guidelines made to prevent chronic disease. DG written by USDA and HHS. Community nutrition programs use Dietary Guidelines to develop their plans (variety in eating, nutrient density, serving sizes, limit calories from saturated fats and added sugars, reduce sodium intake.

Healthy Eating Index (by USDA) is a measure of overall diet quality. Measures how well we follow the recommendations.

My Plate (USDA) shows essential food groups. Recommendations: balancing calories, foods to increase in the diet, foods to reduce.

Healthy People Program (HHS) identifies broad goals and specific objectives for improving health of the public. Focuses on disease prevention by changing behaviours.

The three steps in planning programs:

1) Mission Statement - describes the philosophy of the program. Need/Problem Statement describes the current situation, who says it's a problem, and what will occur if nothing is done.

2) Goals - goals are statements of broad direction and general purpose. Determine which health problems have nutritional implications. Determine what the high risk groups are. Determine what the most critical needs are.

3) Objectives - must be measurable. Objectives are more specific and defined than goals. Include specific target dates for completing specific projects. Evaluate alternative strategies available using cost effectiveness analysis.

Budget controls and coordinates activities. Indicates how and at what rate money should be expended.

Public health departments derive a portion of their income from general revenue taxes. Federal, local, and foundation grants are other sources of income.

Intervention via community nutrition programs relates to the 3 domains of learning: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor.

Enabling makes it easier for people to act. Use the 4 Ps of marketing: Product, Price, Place, Promotion.

A strategy which involves psychomotor learning is helping people develop the skills needed to make and sustain new habits (e.g. how to budget, how to find the services they need.

Monitoring and Evaluation = the 4th step in the Nutrition Care Process (NCP)

Nutrition care outcomes represent results that the practitioner and nutrition care impacted individually. They can be linked to nutrition intervention goals. They're measurable and occur in a reasonable time period. They are attributed to the nutrition care provided. They're logical stepping stones to other health care outcomes.

Nutrition care outcomes are distinct from other health care outcomes b/c they represent the nutrition practitioner's specific contribution to care. They are grouped into 4 categories:

1) Food and Nutrition Related History

2) Lab Data and Medical Tests

3) Anthropometrics

4) Nutrition-Focused Physical Findings

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fitnessknight01 · 1 year

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THE IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION SUPPORTS - FUELING YOUR BODY FOR OPTIMAL HEALTH

Good nutrition is essential for maintaining optimal health, providing your body with the necessary nutrients to function properly. Nutritional support encompasses guidance, knowledge, and resources that aid individuals in making informed dietary choices and achieving their wellness objectives, ultimately optimizing overall health.

What is Nutrition Support?

Nutrition support encompasses aiding individuals in making informed dietary choices through guidance, education, and assistance. It can be provided by nutritionists, dietitians, health coaches, or other trained professionals.

Nutriment support can take many forms, including one-on-one counseling, group sessions, online resources, and meal planning services. Its goal is to help individuals improve their diet and achieve their health and fitness goals.

Benefits of Nutriment Support

Personalized Guidance - Nutriment support provides personalized guidance that takes into account your individual needs, preferences, and health conditions. This personalized approach can help you achieve better results and maintain long-term success.

Education - nutriment support provides education on healthy eating habits, food choices, and the role of nutrients in the body. This knowledge can help you make informed decisions about your diet and improve your overall health.

Accountability - Nutriment support provides accountability, helping you stay on track with your health and fitness goals. This can be especially helpful for individuals who struggle with motivation or sticking to a healthy diet.

Improved Health Outcomes - Proper nutrition can have a significant impact on your overall health and wellbeing. Nutriment support can help you achieve better health outcomes, such as improved energy levels, reduced risk of chronic diseases, and better mental health.

Types of Nutriment Support

Nutrient support can be given orally, through enteral or parenteral methods, including fluids and medications, for those who can't consume orally. In this blog, we will discuss the various types of Nutriment support.

1.Enteral Nutriment:

Enteral Nutriment is the administration of nutrients, fluid, and medication through the gastrointestinal tract. Patients with a functional gastrointestinal tract and ability to tolerate oral or tube feeding are advised to receive this type of nutritional support.

2.Parenteral Nutriment:

A catheter delivers nutrients, fluids, and medication directly into the bloodstream via parenteral nutrition, for patients with severe gastrointestinal disorders or unavailable gastrointestinal tract.

3.Oral Supplementation:

Oral supplementation is the provision of nutrients and fluid through oral means to individuals who cannot meet their nutritional needs through normal dietary intake.

4.Total Parenteral Nutriment:

TPN is a nutrient solution given through a catheter when enteral nutrition is not possible, used for critical illness, severe GI disorders, or prolonged nutritional support.

5.Partial Parenteral Nutriment:

PPN, a type of parenteral nutrition, is administered via a peripheral venous catheter to patients who can tolerate some enteral nutrition, offering a portion of the required nutrients,

6.Elemental Nutriment:

Elemental Nutriment is a type of enteral Nutriment that provides nutrients in a pre-digested form. Patients with severe gastrointestinal disorders,

7.Modular Nutriment:

Modular Nutriment refers to the provision of individual nutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, separately.

#fitness #health #nutrition #healthylifestyle #daily life #healthy life choices #bodymaintenance

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massivebreadshark · 2 years

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Industry analysis provides a company with an understanding of its position relative to other companies in the industry. This can help them identify opportunities and potential threats, so they can prepare for the present and future. MRI Research helps organizations to figure out whats happening in a given industry, including demand and supply statistics, degree of competition, state of competition with other emerging industries, future prospects considering technological changes, and external factors on the industry.

#Peripheral Parenteral Nutrition (PPN)

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neha24blog · 2 years

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Intravenous Solutions Market Outlook On The Basis Of Product, Nutrients, Region And Forecast From 2022 to 2030: Grand View Research Inc.

San Francisco, 2 Sep 2022: The Report Intravenous Solutions Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Product (TPN, PPN), By Nutrients (Vitamins & Minerals, Single-dose Amino Acids), And By Region (EU, APAC, North America), Segment Forecasts, 2022 – 2030 The global intravenous solutions market size is expected to reach USD 22.01 billion by 2030, registering a CAGR of 8.0% according to a new…

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daisyri-me · 3 years

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Outlook on the US$ 259.1 million Growth Factor Of Global Intravenous (IV) Solutions Market to 2024 - Identify Growth Segments for Investment

The global Intravenous (IV) Solutions Market was appreciated at US$ 6.9 billion in the year 2015. It is estimated to develop at a CAGR of 7.8% for the duration of the prediction. The development of this market is credited to the speedily developing elderly people and occurrence of undernourishment in the pediatric and the aging populace. Growing prolonged illnesses, extended period of hospitalization, and the initiative taken by the government projected to increase the market above the prediction period.

The Intravenous (IV) Solutions market on the source of Type of Nutrients could span Minerals & Vitamins [Salt & Electrolyte], Parenteral Lipid Emulsion, Single Dose Amino Acid Solution, Carbohydrates. The subdivision of Single Dose Amino Acid Solution seized a substantial stake during the past year. It was carefully tracked by the subdivision of Parenteral Lipid Emulsions.

Growing occurrence of Hepatic sicknesses, failure of kidney, sicknesses due to the deficit of protein [Kwashiorkor & Marasmus] backing to the greater ingestion of amino acid injections. Furthermore, augmented supports to superior amino acids by way of smaller amount of adversarial properties are likewise powering the development of the market.

The Intravenous (IV) Solutions market on the source of Type could span Peripheral Parenteral Nutrition [PPN], Total Parenteral Nutrition [TPN]. The subdivision of Total Parenteral Nutrition [TPN] retained a mainstream stake in past year, due to the increasing uses by the pediatric and elderly people together with its necessity in the administration of long-lasting sicknesses for example ulcerative colitis and cancer.

The occurrence of cancer is predicted to speedily upturn in the following a small number of years. Stomach cancer is one of the best five cancers disturbing the people. These patients are unable to eat by mouth, and need to depend on Total Parenteral Nutrition [TPN] for existence. Furthermore, numerous patients suffering from progressive cancer grow anorexia. It shrinks their time of existence. These patients react poorly to chemotherapy.

Get Sample Report Copy @ https://www.millioninsights.com/industry-reports/intravenous-iv-solutions-market/request-sample

The Intravenous (IV) Solutions market on the source of Type of End User could span Ambulatory Surgery Centers, Hospitals, Private Clinic, and Others. The Intravenous (IV) Solutions industry on the source of Area with respect to Trades in terms of intake, Profits, Market stake and Development percentage in these areas, for the duration of the prediction could span North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Middle East &Africa.

By the source of geography, North America ruled the market in the past year. Furthermore, the area experienced severe scarcity of IV fluids owing to augmented hospitalization of respiratory tract infection patients during the period of past year. The set-up of compensation is encouraging for IV nourishment. In the emerging nations, growing purchase power pays the nonexistence of compensation exposure accordingly supporting the development.

Asia Pacific is projected to be the speedily developing area. The increasing elderly inhabitants in China and Japan, growing inclinations of ingestion of unhealthy foodstuff, and low-slung level of alertness are projected to encourage the development of the market of IV solutions in this area. India is one of the speedily developing nations owing to growing private resources and government inventiveness in the area.

The statement revises Trades in terms of intake of Intravenous (IV) Solutions in the market; particularly in North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Middle East & Africa. It concentrates on the topmost companies operating in these regions. Some of the important companies operating in the field at the international level are Baxter, B. Braun Melsungen AG, Hospira Inc., and Fresenius Kabi AG. Additional notable companies operating in the field are Vifor Pharma, JW Life Science, ICU Medical, Inc., Sichuan Kelun Pharmaceutical, Omnicare, and Grifols.

View summary of this report @ https://www.millioninsights.com/industry-reports/intravenous-iv-solutions-market

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ppnsolutions · 14 days

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What software do airlines use for flight planning?

Airline Route Planning Software ( #FlightPlanning #RouteOptimization):

This software helps airlines optimize flight paths considering factors like distance, weather, fuel efficiency, air traffic control restrictions, and flight time.

Examples include FSS Flight Planning and OAG Flight Availibility.

Flight Dispatch Software ( #FlightDispatch #PreFlightPlanning):

This software assists dispatchers in creating detailed flight plans considering real-time weather data, NOTAMs (Notices to Airmen), runway availability, and weight and balance calculations.

Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) Software ( #EFB #DigitalFlightDeck):

Pilots use EFB software on tablets in the cockpit to access flight plans, navigation charts, weather information, and other operational data during the flight.

Additionally, airlines may utilize:

Crew Management Software ( #CrewManagement #AirlineOperations):

This software helps airlines manage crew scheduling, training, and qualifications.

Maintenance & Engineering Software ( #AircraftMaintenance #MRO):

This software helps airlines track aircraft maintenance schedules, parts inventory, and ensure airworthiness.

#ppn solutions

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giantimpex · 27 days

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chitrakullkarni · 2 years

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Parenteral Nutrition Market Revenue Analysis, Development Opportunities and Forecast, 2024

Global Parenteral Nutrition Market is expected to grow at a significant CAGR in the upcoming period as the scope and its applications are rising enormously across the globe. Parenteral nutrition is also termed as intravenous feeding, is a procedure of getting nutrition into the body via veins. Based on the vein used, a method is also termed as peripheral parenteral nutrition (PPN) or total parenteral nutrition (TPN).

The factors that are playing a major role in the growth of parenteral nutrition market are growing natality rate, the growing complications during labor, increasing cases of malnutrition’s mainly in developing countries, and the rising preterm births. Parenteral nutrition industry is segmented based on the type of nutrient and region.

Vitamins and minerals, carbohydrates, trace elements, parenteral lipid emulsion, single dose amino acid solution, and other nutrient types could be explored in parenteral nutrition market in the forecast period. Single dose amino acid solution sector accounted for the substantial share of parenteral nutrition market and is estimated to lead the overall market in the years to come. The reason could be the arrival of regulatory approved solutions and the rising use of amino acid solutions. Also, parental lipid emulsion sector is estimated to grow at the fastest pace in the years to come.

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Globally, North America accounted for the substantial market share of parenteral nutrition and is estimated to lead the overall market in the years to come. The reason behind the overall market growth could be the availability of funding for research by government and private organizations, alliances among universities, medical device industry, and regulatory authorities, and the availability of technologically enhanced medical devices.

Also, the rising occurrence of chronic diseases, advanced healthcare facilities, and the availability of favorable compensation policies are the factors that may boost the overall market in this region. The United States is a major consumer of parenteral nutrition in this region.

Europe and the Asia Pacific are also estimated to have a positive influence on future growth. Europe is the second largest region with significant market share. However, Asia Pacific is estimated to grow at the highest CAGR in the forecast period. The developing countries like India and China are the major consumers of parenteral nutrition in this region.

The key players of parenteral nutrition industry are Aculife Healthcare, B. Braun Melsungen AG, Vifor Pharma, Fresenius Kabi AG, Sichuan Kelun Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Allergan plc, Baxter International, Inc., Grifols, S.A., Otsuka Pharmaceutical Factory Inc., and Hospira. These players are concentrating on inorganic growth to sustain themselves amidst fierce competition.

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imprintsolution · 3 years

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enquirygateindia · 3 years

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rahulmmr · 3 years

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Global Intravenous Solution Market was valued USD xx Mn and is expected to register a CAGR of 7.69% to reach USD 16,672.38 Million by 2027.

Intravenous Solution Market

The report study has analyzed the revenue impact of COVID -19 pandemic on the sales revenue of market leaders, market followers, and market disrupters in the report, and the same is reflected in our analysis.

Intravenous (IV) solutions are liquids which should be regulated to a patient directly into the venous circulation. These liquids are sterile liquids which ensure patients during extreme dehydration. There are number of sorts of IV solutions accessible for use in the market. Number of organizations makes packaged intravenous liquids or products or compounds which could be blended with sterile water to set up a solutionfor intravenous administration.

Growing incidence rate of severe diseases such ascancer is driving the demand for Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN), which forms animportant aspect of the treatment. Intravenous nutrition supports to continue quality, keeps up hydration levels in patients, and encourages faster recovery. Cancer prevalence is assessed to develop by 70% for next few decades. This represents an enormous development prospect for the market.

Number of patients suffering from advanced cancer developsanorexia, thisdecreases their life duration time. These patients don't react well to chemotherapy and suffer from elevated toxicity. This sickness is relieved by peripheral or overall parenteral nutrition. Thus, the rise in use of parenteral nutrition by malignancy patients has driven the development of the IV solutions market.

North America accounts for major shareholder of IV solutions in the healthcare industry. The high development rate in this region is recognized by the factors, for example, high IV utilization number around 750 units of typical saline are used every minute in this region. Europe currently holds the second biggest market share of IV solutions industry. The market is developing in this region because of the factors like expanding volume sales of IV solutions in Europe owing to rising European elderlypopulation and relating growth of the patient pool.

Healthcare industry is quickly moving to Asia-Pacific from different areas such as North America and Europe. The principle factors for this incorporate, persistently expanding population base alongside the cost advantage, the increase in high-caliber and better healthcare infrastructure and institutions in these nations and rising private assets, and government activities in the region are contributing to the growth of the market.

The objective of the report is to present a comprehensive analysis of the Intravenous Solution Market including all the stakeholders of the industry. The past and current status of the industry with forecasted market size and trends are presented in the report with the analysis of complicated data in simple language. The report covers all the aspects of the industry with a dedicated study of key players that includes market leaders, followers and new entrants. PORTER, SVOR, PESTEL analysis with the potential impact of micro-economic factors of the market has been presented in the report. External as well as internal factors that are supposed to affect the business positively or negatively have been analyzed, which will give a clear futuristic view of the industry to the decision-makers.

The report also helps in understanding Intravenous Solution Market dynamics, structure by analyzing the market segments and projects the Intravenous Solution Market size. Clear representation of competitive analysis of key players by Application, price, financial position, Product portfolio, growth strategies, and regional presence in the Intravenous Solution Market make the report investor’s guide.

visit at-https://www.maximizemarketresearch.com/market-report/intravenous-solution-market/73970/

Scope of Intravenous Solution Market

Intravenous Solution Market, By Type

• Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN)

• Peripheral Parenteral Nutrition (PPN)

Intravenous Solution Market, By Nutrients

• Carbohydrates

• Single dose amino acid solution

• Vitamins & minerals (salt and electrolyte)

• Parenteral lipid emulsion

• Others (trace elements)

Intravenous Solution Market, By Application

• Basic IV Solution

• Nutritional IV Solution

• Blood IV Solution

• Drug IV Solution

• Irrigation IV Solution

• Others

Intravenous Solution Market, By End-user

• Hospitals

• Ambulatory Surgery Centers

• Home Care Settings

Intravenous Solution Market, By Region

• Asia Pacific

• North America

• Europe

• South America

• Middle East & Africa

Key players operating in the Intravenous Solution Market

• Baxter,

• Fresenius Kabi AG,

• B. Braun Melsungen AG,

• ICU Medical, Inc.,

• Grifols,

• Terumo Corporation,

• Amanta Healthcare,

• Ajinomoto,

• Johnson & Johnson ,

• Novartis AG

• Abbott Laboratories

• Medtronic PLC

• Danaher Corporation

• General Electric

• 3M Company

• Siemens Healthineers

• Stryker Corporation

• Becton, Dickinson & Company

• Intuitive Surgical Inc.

• Allergan PLC

• Hoya Corp.

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#Intravenous Solution Market

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healthcaremarketforecasters · 3 years

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Parenteral Nutrition Market Rising Demand for Children Care Will Enhance The Value in 2024

Mar 04, 2021: Global Parenteral Nutrition Market is expected to grow at a significant CAGR in the upcoming period as the scope and its applications are rising enormously across the globe. Parenteral nutrition is also termed as intravenous feeding, is a procedure of getting nutrition into the body via veins. Based on the vein used, a method is also termed as peripheral parenteral nutrition (PPN) or total parenteral nutrition (TPN).

Download sample Copy of This Report at: https://www.millioninsights.com/industry-reports/parenteral-nutrition-market/request-sample

Single dose amino acid solution sector accounted for the substantial share of parenteral nutrition market and is estimated to lead the overall market in the years to come. The reason could be the arrival of regulatory approved solutions and the rising use of amino acid solutions. Also, parental lipid emulsion sector is estimated to grow at the fastest pace in the years to come.

Read Complete Report with TOC @ https://www.millioninsights.com/industry-reports/parenteral-nutrition-market

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#Parenteral Nutrition Market Parenteral Nutrition Market Research Parenteral Nutrition Market Survey Parenteral Nutrition Market Analysis Par

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neha24blog · 3 years

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Intravenous Solutions Market Size Worth $ 18.9 Billion By 2028: Grand View Research Inc.

San Francisco, 3 March 2021: The Report Intravenous Solutions Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Type (TPN, PPN), By Nutrients (Carbohydrates, Single Dose Amino Acid Solution, Parenteral Lipid Emulsion), By Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2021 – 2028 The global intravenous solutions market size is expected to reach USD 18.9 billion by 2028 according to a new report by Grand View…

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#Intravenous Solutions Industry #Intravenous Solutions Market

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annieboltonworld · 3 years

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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

The Parasitism of Root Knot Nematodes: A Mini review

Authored by Mohamed S Khalil

Abstract

Phyto nematodes, or plant-parasitic nematodes, are considered to be among the most important economic pathogens around the world. Plant tissues are the main source of food for plant parasitic nematodes. There are thousands of nematodes genera, but the root- knot nematodes (Meloidogynespp.) were and still the most dominant and destructive genus around the world. Meloidogynespp. Cause an estimated an nualloss of $157 billion globally. Root-knot nematodes release certain proteins that modifying the plant cell wall to disrupt it, in addition to the mechanicals hearing by the stylet of nematodes. The parasitism proteins secreted by root- knot nematode might include plant cell wall modifying enzymes, besides proteins that are capable of localizing in the host plant cell nucleus, suppressors of host defense, proteins that can mimic plant proteins as reported in other cyst and root knot nematodes.

Keywords: Root-Knot Nematodes; Plant Cell-Wall; Life Cycle; Parasitism; Degrading Enzymes

Introduction

Plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) are tiny micro scopic worms and occur abundantly in soil. Moreover, plant parasitic ematodes are the hidden enemy of crops and are one of the many groups of harmful organisms which depend on plants for their survival and reproduction [1]. PPN infesting several growing crops, such as vegetables and leguminous crops, oil crops, fiber crops, grain crops and fruit trees next to weeds which are the secondary host to parasitic nematodes [2]. Among the root-knot nematodes, Meloidogynejavanica (Treub) Chitw., M.incognita (KofoidandWhite) Chitw., M.arenaria (Neal) Chitw., and M.hapla Chitw. are the major agronomic importance, being responsible for at least 90% of all damage caused by nematodes form any cultivated crops around the world [3,4].

The root-knot nematodes (Meloidogynespp.) are end parasitic & sedentary nematodes which complete their life cycle inside the plant tissues and produce large numbers of eggs, which accumulate in masses attached to their bodies. Otherwise, the common symptoms of the infestation with root-knot nematode are stunting, yellowing and wilting, but the major symptom is the gall formation in plant roots [2]. The estimated annual losses to world crops by plant parasitic nematodes are $118b [5]. Plant parasitic nematodes feed on living plant tissues, using an oral styled to puncture host cells. All plant nematodes inject enzymes (saliva), in to a host cell before feeding. The saliva stimulates cell enlargement and also liquefies part of the contents of the cells, which are then withdrawn by the nematode through its stylet. Therefore, this simple mini-review aimed to make a small notification, for those interesting by parasitism of root- knot nematodes and how nematodes degrade the plant cells wall. Also, it is helpful for those work or study in field of pest management to understand the parasitism mechanisms.

Life Cycle and Giant Cell Formation of Root-Knot Nematodes

The life cycle of root-knot nematode from egg to egg is complete in about 25 days at 27°C, but it could be increased or decreased expending on the levels of temperature (lower or higher). Each female lays approximately 500eggs in a gelatinous mass produced by the female from rectum glands. Embryo genesis within the egg is transformed to the second stage juvenile after the first molting. The second-stage juveniles (J2) considered the infectious stage which starts immediately seeking about the host [6]. Nematodes use their chemo receptors to find the host and this depending on the root exudates of the host plant [7]. Moreover, juveniles (J2) penetrate the root just behind the root tip and migrate between cells until staying near to vascular cylinder. The second-stage juveniles may migrate from within galls to adjacent parts of the root and cause new infections in the same root, or they may emerge from the root and infect other roots of the same plants or roots of other plants.

The second-stage juveniles (J2) induce about five to seven parenchyma tic root cells into multinucleate and hypertrophied feeding cells. These transformed root cells are the giant cells which function as specialized source to provide nutrients to the nematodeuntilre production. During feeding process, then nematode becomes sedentary, going through three molts before becoming a mature adult. Most RKNs reproduce by parthenogenesis [8]. Males migrate out of the plant and playnorolein reproduction. After the development of the pear shaped female, eggs are released on the root surface in a protective, gelatinous matrix. It is so easy to distinguish between male and female of root-knot nematodes through the morphological form. The males of root-knot nematodes are worm like and about 1.2 to 1.5mm long by 30 to 36μm India meter. Whereas, females in last stage are pear shaped and about 0. 40 to 1.30mm long by 0.27 to 0.75mm wide.

Giant-cells expand rapidly, reaching their full size during 2 or 3 weeks after onset of nematode feeding [9]. The induced cells by root-knot nematodes are between three to six giant-cells to feed from. The first sign of giant-cell induction is the formation of binucleate cells [10]. Giant cells have a very dense cytoplasm containing numerous mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes, a well- developed Golgi apparatus and smooth end oplasmicreticulum, generally organized in swirls [10]. The vacuole disappears and gives rise to many small vacuoles. To enhance solute up take from the vascular system, cell wall ingrowths develop in contact with the xylem. Thus, mature giant cells are metabolically active and act as transfer cells for the feeding nematode. Historically, Nemec was the first scientist who explains the mode of giant-cell information [11]. He mentioned that development of giant-cells occur by expansion of cell without degradation of cell wall. Also, he clarified that the cell extension is accompanied with repeated rounds of mitosis without cell wall formation providing an explanation for the high numbers of nuclei in these large cells.

Parasitism of Root-Knot Nematodes

Parasitism genes which found in root knot nematodes are responsible for production of Parasitism proteins that secreted by the nematode and play a direct role in plant parasitism [12]. The secreted proteins are mostly originated from the esophageal gland cells, but secretions from the chemo sensory amphids might also be important [13]. In most cases of parasitism the second stage juvenile (J2) is the infectious stage who initiate the parasitic relationship with the host by releasing their secretions into the root cells through its style which stimulate the root cells of the host to become specialized feeding cells (giant cells), which considered the essential and only source of nutrients for the nematode's survival [14,15]. Plant cell walls serve as obstacles.nematodes release a mixture of cell-wall-digesting enzymes to break structural plant cell walls [15]. Mean while, migratory plant nematodes that enter plant tissues facing additional obstacles to feeding through different tissues, as well as evasion of host defense [16]. Zenov'eva et al. [17] summarized several gene products isolated from sub-ventral glands of nematodes which included lipo protein, cellulose-binding protein, endo- glucanase, chitinase, pectinase and proteinase.

Enzymes Involved in Cell Wall Breakdown

Calreticulin: Calreticulin like proteins are also reported to be secreted from other plant parasitic nematodes and play a role in the interactions among parasite and host [18,19]. A calreticulin-like protein preceded by a signal peptide was also reported to be secreted from the sub-ventral glands of a root knot nematode [20].

Cellulase: After the hatching of eggs, the juveniles of root- knot nematodes are needed to penetrate the root of host plant to complete their life cycle. The main structural component of the plant cell wall is Cellulose which needs to degrade by Cellulase enzyme. Cellulases are responsible for the hydrolysis of β- 1, 4- glucosidic linkages. The Celluloses enzymes were identified in the sedentary nematode genre a as Meloidogyne, Heterodera and Globodera [21]. The plant cell wall digesting enzyme cellulose gene is already described for root knot nematodes [14,22,23].

Chorismate Mutase: The enzyme chorismatemutase is proved to be involved in early development of the feedings it as induced by plant parasitic nematodes, but how this enzyme alters the development of plant cells is not properly known [24]. The first animal chorismate mutasegene (Mj-cm-1) was cloned from Meloido gyne javanica and found to be expressed in the oesophageal gland cells of the nematode [25]. Chorismate mutase was also identified from soybean and potato cyst nematodes recently [26-28].

PectateLyase: Certain evidences proved that Pectatelyases enzymes are produced and released during the process of nematode penetration and migration or not at all during these dentary stages of the nematodes [14,29,30]. Pectatelyases enzymes were identified in many genre a such as Meloidogyne spp., Heterodera, Globodera and Bursaphelenchus spp. [14,31]. Moreover, some reports mentioned that the pectinase proteins obtained from root knot nematodes was of the type pectatelyase which is found in fungi and bacteria [32,33].

Polygalacturonase: The first recorded animal Polygalacturonases (PGs) enzymes were reproduced from Meloidogyneincognita [34]. Polygalacturonases are enzymes that catalyze the degradation of pectins which is major plant cell wall components, in another word, the poly galacturonase which produced by M.incognita could play an important role in weakening the plant cell wall so froot tissue during nematode penetration and inter cellular migration by the parasite like other nematode parasitism genes [35]. Also, PGs enzymes stimulate the hydrolysis of pectic-polygalacturonic acid and turn release oligo galacturonides.

Xylanase: Xylan is the widest spread poly saccharide in nature after cellulose. The functional characterizations of endo-1, 4-β-xylanase was obtained for the first time from the southern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyneincognita). The nematode endo-xylanase has similarity to bacteria lendo-xylanases [36].

Conclusion

The main purpose of this review is to throw alight and or make an instant notification about the parasitism of plant parasitic nematodes especially root-knot nematodes (RKN). In this review we can clarify some points about the importance of some modifying enzymes which play role in penetration processes, besides the mechanical penetration by the stylet. Cellulase, Polygalacturonase, Xylanase and others which considered cell wall modifying enzymes' were proved to be released by certain plant parasitic nematodes including RKN.

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