The Msecke Zebrovice Celtic head is the most famous artifact found in Bohemia .

The massive replacement of the Gallo-Roman population by the Frankish one, posited by the 19th-century German theory, never happened. The regnum Francorum was called thus, not because it was populated by Franks, but because it had been founded by Franks, and because its rulers and upper classes claimed a Frankish descent.

Latin survived in Gaul/France — while it died out in many other places in the former Roman Empire because it has always been the everyday language of the majority since 450 CE at least.

Only the region called Brittany retains strong Celtic traditions, and a small percentage of the population still speaks Breton as a second language; but that is about it as far as Celtic tradition remaining. On the other hand, bagpipes, which are a hallmark of Celtic music, are used in folk/traditional music throughout the entire country, this particular Celtic element has somehow survived in all of France.

The Germanic people who gave France its name, the Franks, settled throughout France, but mainly in the north and eastern regions. There were also the Germanic Burgundians, who inhabited the regions of present-day Burgundy (Bourgogne) right down to Provence and the Mediterranean Sea.

The Franks, like the Romans, were a ruling, administrative body that didn’t, generally speaking, mix and marry with the Gauls (the Romans view the Gauls as “barbarians” — the very word stems from Roman soldiers making fun of the way the Gauls talked “baaaar, baaaaar, baaaar, baaaahhhrr”).

The difference was that the Romans left Gaul after a couple of hundred years, but the Franks settled and have remained in France.

Only the Franks that settled in France adoped Romance. The ones that stayed behind formed modern Dutch and the Franconian dialects of German.

By blood, the French are majority Celtic by the gauls but can only accurately be described as a mix. By language they are mostly latin with their own twist. By culture they are a mix of cultures formed into one.

The Celts used to live in central Germany but were basically pushed out and many absorbed. The Danube and Rhine Rivers became the border between Celts and Germans by the first century AD. After the Roman Empire fell all of the Celts living in Upper and Lower Bavaria were absorbed by the Germans. Later these mixed Celto-Germanic Bavarians invaded Austria and mixed to a limited extent with Celtic and Slavic peoples.

A similar thing happened in Bohemia. The Celtic Boii were pushed east or absorbed by the Macomannii. Quadii, and Lombards. Later the small bands of Slavic speaking warriors took over Bohemia when the Germans left and absorbed all the Celtic and Germanic people who stayed in Bohemia.

The south of France is an “assimilated France”, annexed later in history to the North, and where the language was repressed, especially at the end of the 19th century. Just as it would be funny to use the Catalans as the most typical Spaniards (Madrileños, Castellanos), it would be funny to use Occitans to be the most typical French that would be somehow the most pristine form of the ancestral French culture.

The craddle of the French language is a Latin speaking populace in contact with Germanic people in the north of France. There is no French distinction without some Germanic elements.

A rant against Karen Traviss' understanding of history and her FAQ answers

Did you base the Mandalorians on the Spartans?

<cite> No. I didn't. </cite> Fair enough.

<cite> I really wish history was taught properly - okay, taught at all - in schools these days, because history is the big storehouse that I plunder for fiction. It breaks my heart to hear from young readers who have no concept even of recent history - the last fifty years - and so can't see the parallels in my books. You don't have to be a historian to read my novels, but you'll get a lot more out of them if you explore history just a little more. Watch a history channel. Read a few books. Visit some museums. Because history is not "then" - it's "now." Everything we experience today is the product of what's happened before. </cite> Yeah, I do to. Please, Ms Traviss, go on, read some books. Might do you some good. And don't just trust the history channels. Their ideas about fact-checking differ wildly.

<cite> But back to Mandos. Not every military society is based on Sparta, strange as that may seem. In fact, the Mandos don't have much in common with the real Spartans at all. </cite> You mean apart from the absolute obsession with the military ["Agoge" by Stephen Hodkinson], fearsome reputation ["A Historical Commentary on Thucydides" by David Cartwright], their general-king ["Sparta" by Marcus Niebuhr Tod], the fact that they practically acted as mercenaries (like Clearch/Κλέαρχος), or the hyper-confidence ("the city is well-fortified that has a wall of men instead of brick" [Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus])...

<cite> A slightly anarchic, non-centralized, fightin' people? Sounded pretty Celtic to me. Since I went down that path, I've learned more about the Celts (especially the Picts), and the more I learn, the more I realise what a dead ringer for Mandos they are. But more of how that happened later... </cite>

The Celtic people are more than one people, more than one culture. Celtic is a language-family! In the last millennium BC nearly every European ethnic group was in some ways Celtic, and they were not one. Later, after the Germanic tribes (also not one people, or a singular group) moved westwards, the Celtic cultures were still counted in the hundreds. Not only Scotland was Celtic! Nearly all of Western Europe was (apart from the Greek and Phoenician settlers on the Mediterranean coasts). The word “Celts” was written down for the first time by Greek authors who later also used the word “Galatians”. The Romans called these people “Gauls”, and this word was used to describe a specific area, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, the Cévennes and the Rhine: “Gaul”. So the Celts, the Galatians and the Gauls were all part of the same Celtic civilisation. "Celts, a name applied by ancient writers to a population group occupying lands mainly north of the Mediterranean region from Galicia in the west to Galatia in the east [] Their unity is recognizable by common speech and common artistic traditions" [Waldman & Mason 2006] Mirobrigenses qui Celtici cognominantur. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History; example: C(AIUS) PORCIUS SEVERUS MIROBRIGEN(SIS) CELT(ICUS) -> not just one culture "Their tribes and groups eventually ranged from the British Isles and northern Spain to as far east as Transylvania, the Black Sea coasts, and Galatia in Anatolia and were in part absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Linguistically they survive in the modern Celtic speakers of Ireland, Highland Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany." [Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. by John Koch] "[] the individual CELTIC COUNTRIES and their languages, []" James, Simon (1999). The Atlantic Celts – Ancient People Or Modern Invention. University of Wisconsin Press. "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae live, another in which the Aquitani live, and the third are those who in their own tongue are called Celtae, in our language Galli." [Julius Caesar, De Bello Gallico] <= I had to translate that in school. It's tedious political propaganda. Read also the Comentarii and maybe the paper "Caesar's perception of Gallic social structures" that can be found in "Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State," Cambridge University Press. The Celtic tribes and nations were diverse. They were pretty organized, with an academic system, roads, trade, and laws. They were not anarchic in any way. They were not warriors - they were mostly farmers. The Celts were first and foremost farmers and livestock breeders

The basic economy of the Celts was mixed farming, and, except in times of unrest, single farmsteads were usual. Owing to the wide variations in terrain and climate, cattle raising was more important than cereal cultivation in some regions.

Suetonius addressing his legionaries said "They are not soldiers—they're not even properly equipped. We've beaten them before." [not entirely sure, but I think that was in Tacitus' Annals]

Regarding the Picts, in particular, which part of their history is "anarchic"? Dál Riata? the Kingdom of Alba? Or are you referring to the warriors that inspired the Hadrian's Wall? Because no one really knows in our days who the fuck they were. The Picts’ name first appears in 297 AD. That is later. <cite> Celts are a good fit with the kind of indomitable, you-can't-kill-'em-off vibe of the Mandos. Reviled by Rome as ignorant savages with no culture or science, and only fit for slaughter or conquest, the Celts were in fact much more civilized than Rome even by modern standards. </cite> That's how the Romans looked at pretty much every culture that wasn't Greek, Roman, Phoenician, Egyptian, or from Mesopotamia (read, if you want, anything Roman or Greek about the Skyths, the Huns, Vandals, Garamantes...).

<cite> They also kicked Roman arse on the battlefield, and were very hard to keep in line, so Rome did what all lying, greedy superpowers do when challenged: they demonized and dehumanized the enemy. (They still used them in their army, of course, but that's only to be expected.) </cite> They were hard to keep in line, but they most definitely did not kick Roman arse on the battlefield. Roman arse was kicked along the borders of the Roman Empire, such as the Rhine, the Danube, the Atlas mountains, etc. And mostly by actually badly organized, slightly anarchic groups, such as the Goths or the Huns (BTW the Huns were not a Germanic people, even though early 20th century British propaganda likes to say so). Though they were also decisively stopped by the Parthians. Who were very organized. Ah well. <cite> While Rome was still leaving its unwanted babies to die on rubbish dumps - a perfectly acceptable form of family planning to this "civilisation" - and keeping women as chattels devoid of rights, the barbarian Celts had a long-standing legal system that not only gave women what we would think of as equal rights, but also protected the rights of the elderly, children, and the disabled. They had a road network across Europe and worldwide trade long before the Romans ever got their act together. And their science - well, their astronomical calculations were so sophisticated that it takes computers to do the same stuff today. </cite> See? You even say yourself that they weren't actually anarchic. Also you're not completely right: 1. women (of most Celtic cultures, with one notable exception being the Irish) were not allowed to become druids, e.g. scientists, physicians, priests, or any other kind of academics, so they did not have equal rights. Also, as in other Indo-European systems, the family was patriarchal. 2. the roads they had were more like paths, and did not span the entirety of Europe; the old roads that are still in use are nearly all of them Roman. Had the Celtic inhabitants of Gallia or Britannia built comparable roads, why would the Romans have invested in building a new system on top? 3. world-wide? Yeah, right. They traded with those who traded with others and so were able to trade with most of southern Eurasia and northern Africa, as well as few northern parts (Balticum, Rus), but that's (surprise) not the whole world. 4. most people use computers for those calculations you mention because its easier. It's not necessary. I can do those calculations - give me some time to study astronomy (I'm a math major, not physics) and some pencils and paper. 5. and - I nearly forgot - the kids didn't die. That was a polite fiction. The harsh truth is that most Roman slaves were Romans... <cite> So - not barbarians. Just a threat to the empire, a culture that wouldn't let the Pax Romana roll over it without a fight. (Except the French tribes, who did roll over, and were regarded by the Germanic Celts [...]) </cite> WTF Germanic Celts? What are you smoking, woman? Isn't it enough that you put every culture speaking a language from the Celtic family in one pot and act as if they were one people, now you have to mix in a different language-family as well? Shall we continue that trend? What about the Mongolian Celts, are they, too, proof that the Celts were badass warriors? I think at this point I just lost all leftover trust in your so-called knowledge. <cite> [...] as being as bad as the Romans. Suck on that, Asterix... </cite> Asterix was definitely a Celt, and unlike the British Celts, he was not a citizen of the Roman Empire.

<cite> Broad brush-stroke time; Celts were not a centralized society but more a network of townships and tribes, a loose alliance of clans who had their own internal spats, but when faced with some uppity outsider would come together to drive off the common threat. </cite> They might have tried, but they didn't. The first and only time a Celtic people really managed to drive off some uppity outsider would be 1922 following the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921*. The fact that France, Spain, Portugal speak Romance languages and the British (or Irish) Isles nearly uniformly speak English should be proof enough.

*Unless you count Asterix. <cite> You couldn't defeat them by cutting off the head. There was no head to cut off. </cite> You mean unlike Boudica and Vercingetorix. Oh wait. Tacitus, in his Annals, said that Boudica's last fight cost 80,000 Britons and 400 Romans their lives. He was probably exaggerating. But it definitely stopped much of the British resistance in its tracks. <cite> To the centralized, formal, rather bureaucratic Romans, for whom the city of Rome was the focus of the whole empire, this was a big does-not-compute. The Celts were everything they didn't understand. And we fear what we don't understand, and we kill what we fear. </cite> While that is totally true, it's also completely off the mark. The Romans demonized the druids, not every Celt, and they were afraid of what was basically an academic network. That had nothing to do with war. <cite> Anyway, Mandos....once I took a single concept - in this case, the idea of clans that operated on a loose alliance system, like the Celts - the rest grew organically. I didn't plan it out in detail from the start. </cite> That's really obvious. Maybe looking at some numbers and remembering that you weren't planning a small, local, rural, medieval community would have helped, too. I mean lets have a look at, say, Scotland (since you specifically mentioned the Picts): they still have less than 6 mio. people all together, and that's today. Mandalore is a sector. A sector of Outer Space with at least 2000 inhabited planets. How do you think that translates? It doesn't. <cite> I just asked myself what a culture of nomadic warriors would value, how they would need to operate to survive, and it all grew inexorably by logical steps. The fact that Mandos ended up as very much like the Celts is proof that the technique of evolving a character or species - find the niche, then work out what fits it - works every time. It creates something very realistic, because that's how real people and real societies develop. </cite> Celtic people were usually not nomadic! And, once again, non of them were predominantly warriors! It's really hard to be a nomadic farmer. I believe the biggest mistake you made, Ms Traviss, is mixing up the Iron Age (and earlier) tribes that did indeed sack Rome and parts of Greece, and that one day would become the people the Romans conquered. And apart from the Picts they really were conquered. <cite> So all I can say about Mandos and Spartans is that the average Mando would probably tell a Spartan to go and put some clothes on, and stop looking like such a big jessie. </cite>

I'd really like to see a Mando – or anyone – wearing full plate without modern or Star Wars technology in Greece. Happy heatstroke. There is a reason they didn't wear a lot (look up the Battle of Hattîn, where crusaders who didn't wear full helmets and wore chainmail* still suffered badly from heat exhaustion). [Nicolle, David (1993), Hattin 1187: Saladin's Greatest Victory] *chainmail apparently can work like a heatsink CONCLUSION You're wrong. And I felt offended by your FAQ answers. QUESTION You're English. You're from England. A group - a nation - that was historically so warlike and so successful that by now we all speak English. A nation that definitely kicked arse against any Celtic nation trying to go against them (until 1921, and they really tried anyway). A nation that had arguably the largest Empire in history. A nation that still is barbaric and warlike enough that a lost football game has people honestly fearing for their lives.

Also, a Germanic group, since you seem to have trouble keeping language-families and cultures apart. If we were to talk about the family, we could add on the current most aggressively attacking nation (USA) plus the former most aggressively attacking nations (the second and third German Reich), also the people who killed off the Roman Empire for good (the Goths and Visigoth), the original berserkers (the Vikings) and claim at the very least the start of BOTH WORLD WARS. Why did you look further?

Some other sources:

Histoire de la vie privée by Georges Duby and Philippe Ariès, the first book  (about the antiquity) I read it translated, my French is ... bad to non-existent

The Day of the Barbarians: The Battle That Led to the Fall of the Roman Empire  (about the Huns) by Alessandro Barbero

If you speak Dutch or German, you might try

Helmut Birkhan: Kelten. Versuch einer Gesamtdarstellung ihrer Kultur, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien

Janssens, Ugo, De Oude Belgen. Geschiedenis, leefgewoontes, mythe en werkelijkheid van de Keltische stammen. Uitgeverij The House of Books

DISCLAIMER

I’m angry and I wrote this down in one session and thus probably made some mistakes. I’m sorry. Or maybe I’m not sorry. I’m still angry. She can’t know who reads her FAQ and at least two of her answers (on her professional website) were offensive to the reader.

Merkwede

The Merkwede is the ancient primeval woods that seperated the Germanics from other people. This forest has been named in the poetic edda, its location was at first thought to be somewhere in Scandinavia, per example the Kolmården forest in Sweden but it is way more likely that this forest was located somewhere on the borders of ancient Germania.

The word itself, 'Merkwede' is the Dutch word for this forest. It is a composition of the Proto-Germanic words 'merkwiz'and 'widuz' meaning dark and forest. This forest is named Myrkviðr in old Norse and Mirkwidu in the old Saxon language. Acccording to the poetic edda, Múspells sons will cross this very forest when they appear from their realm Muspelheim during Ragnarok.

It almost appears as if Merkwede is a mythological place but there are however older written sources that suggest that this forest is very much real and not just known by the Scandinavian people. Thietmar, a bisshop of Merseburg, mentions a place called Miriquidi, a forest located near the ore mountains which lies in South-East Germany on the border of the Czech republic. Thietmar however also mentions a Mircwidu forest which was located in the South-West of the Netherlands. This could refer to the Meriwidu forest in the Netherlands, named after the Merwede river. These two are possible candidates for this mysterious forest as they are both located on the borders of ancient Germania.

Another written source, a 13th century Norse story called Hervarar saga og Heidreks, speaks of a conflict between the Goths and the invading Huns from the East of Europe. In this story a forest is mentioned by name, the Myrkviðr forest that seperates the land of the Huns from the Goths. The location of this forest must have been near the Maeotian swamp close to the Don river in modern day Southern Russia.

Another more possible candidate is the Hercynia Silva, the ancient Hercynian woods described by Julius Caesar in his work 'de bello Gallico'. This is how Caesar described the forest:

"There isn't any person belonging to this part of Germania who says that he either has gone to the extremity of that forest, though he had advanced a journey of sixty days, or has heard in what place it begins. It is certain that many kinds of wild beast are produced in it which have not been seen in other parts of which the following are such as differ principally from other animals, and appear worthy of being committed to record."

About a century later, a Roman historian Velleius described how emperor Tiberius moved through this forest from the land of the Chatti towards the Marcomanni. Another Roman historian, Florus, described how Drusus managed to cross this forest in 12BC during his campaign against the Germanics. Where did the name Hercynia Silva come from? The Romans didn't invent this name but copied it from the Greeks. Aristoteles already described the landscape of modern day Southern Germany in 350BC in his work Meteorologika. Greek historian Strabon described how the Celtic Boii's homeland was located in Herkúnios Drumós.

The Greeks didn't invent the name either, no they got the name from the Celts who lived near this woods before the Germanics migrated southwards. The name can be traced back to the Proto-Celtic word 'Erkunia' which means mountain range. Perhaps the Proto-Indo European people were already aware of this forest and could have named it Perkunia, we can however not be certain about this but apparently this forest was immens and known by ancient people before the Germanics settled in this area.

Unfortunately most of Hercynia forest has been cut down throughout the centuries but a small part of this forest still exists and is now known as the black forest in modern day Germany. This is an excellent candidate for the Merkwede forest as it is located on the border of two different cultures, that of the Celts and the Germanics. Even now the Black forest is huge, imagine it was only a part of the ancient Hercynia forest and you can understand why the Germanics thought this forest must have been endless.

It is very possible that this forest was once so large that the Germanic people might have viewed it as the end of the world or civilization. No one could possibly live inside this immense primal woods except for otherworldly beings and Gods. Walking in this forest meant walking into two different worlds, that of the humans and of the Gods. Mysterious things could happen or be seen while wandering through this dense forest with its ancient trees, a place forgotten since the beginning of time. Perhaps the Allfather himself wandered through these woods thousands of years ago, searching for knowledge.

The name of this forest also lives on in popular culture. J.R.R Tolkien used the name of this forest to create Mirkwood, a great forest where the woodland elves live in his work the Hobbit.

Here are pictures of: Modern day Ore Mountains forest, Biesbosch forest in the Netherlands (location where once the Meriwidu forest could have stood), Black forest in Germany, Artist's view of Myrkvidr forest by Adam Wesierski,

“Celts and Slavs in Poland.

Below, a map showing the approximate extent of the Przeworsk culture in Poland. Named after a modern town where discoveries were first made by archaeologists, ‘Przeworsk’ is the name given by them to trends in the material culture of southern and central Poland from 250 B.C. to c. AD 450

.The Przeworsk culture evolved from the previous Lusatian culture of Poland, which probably represents early Slavic or proto-Slavic peoples. The Lusatian culture had evolved locally starting around 1,300 B.C. and was heavily influenced by the Celtic Urnfield culture (1,300 to c. 750 B.C.) of Central Europe. Starting from around 350 B.C., intrusions by bands of Celts into southern Poland kickstarted a process by which the local Lusatian culture evolved into what we now know as the Przeworsk culture.

Celts first arrived in Poland around 350 B.C., arriving from the area of Bohemia, in what is now the Czech Republic (Gediga, pp. 86-91). These groups probably came as refugees from upheavals occurring in Central Europe among the Celts themselves. At around that time, a group from Switzerland appears to have invaded Bohemia, resulting in the destruction of the Celtic hill-fort of Zavist (Cunliffe, p. 79).

These first Celts settled to the south of Wroclaw and around Mount Šlęza, while another group settled in the Glubczyce highlands. These two groups remained settled there until about 120 B.C., when for unknown reasons, the Wroclaw settlement dispersed and the Glubczyce group migrated southward (Gediga, pp. 86-91).

Two more groups of Celts arrived in Poland at around 270 B.C. settling in the San river basin and around Krakow. This last group mingled with the locals of Lusatian culture derivation and began the development of what we call the Przeworsk culture. At around 60 B.C. more Celts arrived in the Krakow area from Slovakia, probably after having been displaced from their homeland by the Dacians, who, led by their king, Burebista, defeated the Celtic Boii and Taurisci kingdoms of Central Europe in a particularly violent war (Poleski, p. 13). Thus, in southeastern Poland a new polity began to form, which consisted of mixed populations of Celtic migrants and local Slavs. 

The Przeworsk culture spread quickly westward, absorbing other Slavic and Germanic communities and eventually reaching Kujawy, farther to the north. By the 1st century AD, Przeworsk was the dominant culture of Poland and greatly influenced other neighboring peoples, such as the Oksywie culture of northern Poland (Godlowski, 1970 & Makiewicz, pp. 94-7), and the Zarubintsy culture in the Galicia region of Poland and west Ukraine.

Przeworsk culture settlements consisted of small, unfortified farming villages with square or rectangular wooden houses. The people of the Przeworsk culture practiced both agriculture and animal husbandry. Wheat, barley, millet, rye and oats were all grown and fields were alternated between cultivation and grazing. Cattle, pigs, sheep, horses and goats were also an integral part of the agrarian economy. Wells, a concept introduced into the region by the Celts, were also dug so that settlements no longer had to be built near rivers (Naglik, 2005). The people of the Przeworsk culture also mastered iron smelting and extraction from bog ores, working with techniques introduced by the Celts (Andrzejowski, 2010 & Gediga, pp. 86-91). Additionally, the Przeworsk culture people mined salt and benefited economically from the Baltic amber trade (Adamczyk, 2005 & Gediga, pp. 86-91).

Early burial practices followed the old Lusatian/Urnfield custom of cremation and burial in clay urns. This is in contrast to the Celts who had first migrated into Poland, who‘d been more inclined to inhumation burial (Gediga, pp. 86-91). Grave goods often included horse gear and Celtic-style (La Tène) weapons such as spears, swords and characteristic oblong shields.

Turning to the historical sources, the identity and historical role of the Przeworsk culture people can perhaps be further defined. Roman sources such as Tacitus, Strabo and Claudius Ptolemy, all wrote of a powerful tribal federation existing between the Oder and Vistula rivers, the area occupied by what we now call the Przeworsk culture. This tribal federation was referred to in the sources as “Lugii” or ‘Lugians’. 

According to Tacitus’ treatise “Germania”, the Lugii consisted of five tribes: Helveconae, Nahanarvali, Manimi, Helisii and Harii (Tacitus, “Germania” XLIII). Of these tribal names, “Lugii” and “Helveconae” are unquestionably Celtic. “Lugii” derives almost certainly from the Celtic god of commerce and money, Lugus (identified by the Romans with Mercury), while “Helveconae” would appear to mean “prosperous hounds/wolves” (from Gaulish “elu” meaning “gain”, “prosperity” and “con”, meaning “dog/wolf”). 

One need only to compare Helveconae to other known Celtic tribal names, such as that of the “Helvetii” of Switzerland, or of the “Helvii” of southern France, and the connection is clear. In like manner, “Helisii” has a Celtic ring to it, being similar to that of the Ligurian “Elysices” tribe of southern France, though a connection to Celtic languages is far less certain in this case. 

Speculation abounds as to whether the modern place-name Kalisz, in central Poland, might be derived from the ancient Helisii tribal name. Other tribal names mentioned by Tacitus, such as “Harii” and “Nahanarvali” are clearly not Celtic. The former is Germanic, being connected to the word “here”, meaning army. As the Harii were described as a fierce group of warriors who fought at night with black shields and black painted skin, it is possible that this wasn’t so much a tribe as it was the military aristocracy of the Lugian tribal federation. Other than this terrifying bit of information about the “Harii”, the only other insight Tacitus gives us into the culture of the Lugii is his description of a cult to the Indo-European horse-twin gods, known locally as “Alcis”. 

The sanctuary was located in a sacred grove of the Nahanarvali tribe. No images of the gods were kept there, and the worship was presided over by priests “appareled like women”. Worship of the horse-twin gods is more familiar as a Germanic tradition, reflected in later Anglo-Saxon lore about the brothers Hengist and Horsa. On the other hand, that the gods were attended by priests appareled like women is reflective of Scythian practice (Silk Road Foundation, 2000). 

The mysterious Nahanarvali were almost certainly not of Celtic extraction.Tacitus’ tribal names are not repeated in other sources. Ptolemy for example, has the Lugii made up of three tribes: the Diduni in Silesia, the Buri to the east of them, and the Omani at an unspecified location (Ptolemy, II, X). In the area of Silesia, Ptolemy locates the settlement of “Lugidunum”, another clearly Celtic name, meaning “hill-fort of the Lugii”. “-Dunum” is a uniquely Celtic word to describe a fortified settlement and so here, once again, we find clear evidence that at least some of the Lugii were speakers of a Celtic language. The Buri on the other hand, were known to be Germanic, while the Omani have been speculated to be the same people as the Atmoni, a branch of the probably Slavic Bastarnae tribal federation. 

The Bastarnae would appear to correspond to the neighboring Zarubintsy archaeological culture (250 B.C. to c. AD 50). Like the Lugii, they were probably of Celto-Slavic origin, with heavy influences from the neighboring Sarmatians as well.That the Lugii were a force to be reckoned with is evident from the historical record itself. According to Tacitus’ “Annals”, in the year 50 AD, Vannius, king of the Germanic Quadi and Marcomanni tribes (who inhabited what is now Czech Republic and Slovakia), was overthrown by his nephews, Vangio and Sido, with help from Vibilius, king if the neighboring Hermunduri tribe (Tacitus, “Annals”, XII, XXIX). Vannius had been appointed through Roman patronage and the Marcomanni-Quadi alliance he ruled over was the dominant political, military and economic force of Germany at that time. 

During the coup, Vannius gathered a large force of Germanic foot-soldiers and allied Sarmatian horsemen. Being outnumbered, he retreated and shut himself up in a fortified settlement. A large force of Lugians had invaded the kingdom to take advantage of the chaos and plunder Vannius’ riches. Seeking to reverse his fortunes, Vannius sallied out with his army to deal with the Lugians and Hermundurians. The ensuing clash resulted in the destruction of the German-Sarmatian army, with Vannius himself escaping badly wounded to a Roman fleet, which lie waiting for him on the river Danube. Later, Cassius Dio’s “Roman History” records other events involving the Lugii in the years 91-92 AD. That year, the tribal federation was embroiled in a war with the Germanic Suebi and sought an alliance with the Roman empire (Dio, “Roman History”, LXVII). Emperor Domitian dispatched a small detachment of 100 horsemen to participate in the war on the side of the Lugians. Thus, it appears that like many other Celtic peoples in Central Europe, the Lugii opted for alliance with Rome, in order to counterbalance the formidable power of both the Germanic peoples and the Dacians. However, the alliance does not appear to have lasted long, for by 279 we find the Lugians (called “Longiones” by Zosimus’ “Nova Historia”) raiding deep into Roman territory and plundering the province of Rhaetia (part of modern Austria and Switzerland). 

Here, the Roman Emperor Probus repelled their attack and captured their king, named as ‘Semno’ (Zosimus, “Nova Historia”, I:LXVII); Semno was released upon accepting terms from the Romans. This is the last known historical mention of the Lugian people. By the 5th century AD, the Przeworsk culture disappeared from Poland, probably as a result of the invasions of the Asiatic Huns.

As archaeology is unveiling more about Poland’s ancient past, lost bits of history come into the light. Not only does it appear that ancient Poles formed a formidable and highly successful polity in Central Europe, but also that Celt and Slav both coalesced to form a hybrid culture with a high degree of vitality.

Sources:

Adamczyk, Kazimierz. “The Archaeology of the Transit Gas Pipeline”, Living Archaeology, English edition. 2005

Andrzejowski, Jacek. “The Przeworsk Culture, A Brief History (for the Foreigners)”. Worlds Apart? Contacts Across the Baltic Sea in the Iron Age: Network Denmark-Poland 2005-2008. Copenhagen-Warsaw. 2010

Barry Cunliffe, “The Ancient Celts”. Oxford University Press, 1997

Cassius Dio, “Roman History”.

Claudius Ptolemy, “Geography”.

Cornelius Tacitus, “Annals”.Cornelius Tacitus, “Germania”.

Gediga, Boguslaw and Makiewicz, Tadeusz. “Foundations of Poland (until year 1,038)”. Wydawnictwo Dolnoślaskie. 2002

Godlowski, K. “The Chronology of Late Roman and Early Migration Periods in Central Europe”. Crakow. 1970

Naglik, Riszard. “Archaeological Motorway”, Living Archaeology, English Edition. 2005.

Poleski, Jacek. “Chronology of Polish History”. Wydawnictwo Dolnoślaskie. 1999

Silk Road Foundation. “The Scythians”, 2000. Link: http://silkroadfoundation.org/artl/scythian.shtml.oldZosimus, 

“Nova Historia”.

Link from facebook page “Celtic Europe”: https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=2766737023343676&id=2158176407533077&__tn__=K-R

Prague Travel Guide: Everything You Need to Know

Prague is the capital and the largest city of Czech where is also one of the most important travel centres in Europe. In this Prague travel guide, you will find everything from you need to plan a trip to Prague, a very historical city and the hearth of the Bohemia. I will start with a brief history of Prague and Bohemia to give you brief information about why this place is so iconic. By the way, Bohemia is the western part of the Czech and also the most historic. From time to time, Bohemia can be used to define the entire Czech with Moravia and Czech Silesia. Then, I will give information about the city, airports, public transport, local foods, where to stay, what to do and more. You can directly read the section you desire from the table of content below. Let's start and dive into the Prague travel guide.

Basic Facts About Prague

Prague is not the biggest or most touristic spot in Europe but it is one of the most important ones without a doubt. Because Prague has a very long-standing history that represents it with unique landmark around the city; Prague Castle, Astronomical Clock, Clementinum, Wenceslas Square, Vysehrad Castle and more. In this part of Prague travel guide, you will find the basic facts about Prague to have a basic idea about the region, lifestyle and history. When Was The Prague Founded? Prague history dates back to the 5th century during the right of the Great Moravian Empire and the Premsylid Dynasty. But the official foundation year of the Prague accepted at 880. Because around 880, Prague Castle was founded by the princes Borijov who was the first princes of the Premsylid. After the construction of the Prague Castle, throne moved here and the city became the centre of the empire. Where is Prague and What is the Population? Prague is located very centre in Europe and a very important city for central Europe. As you know, Cezch is surrounded by Germany, Austria, Slovakia and Poland. Prague always was a major political, cultural and economic centre for the Europe entire history. Also, you can find a flight from almost everywhere in the world to Prague's main and only airport, Vaclav Havel. However, if you like train trips, you can find direct lines from many of the European countries to the main train station in Prague, Hlavní nádraží. Prague is a very touristic spot but the city is not that crowed like Istanbul or London, which is good for you. Today, more than 1.3 million people are living the Prague city centre and more 2.7 million over the entire Prague metropolitan area. When you think that the annual tourist number of Prague is over 8 million, the city's low number of inhabitant is a bit of luck for the travellers. Is Prague  Worth Visiting? YES, YES, YES! Every year more than 8 million people won't be wrong, right? Prague is one of the most historical city not only in Europe, the entire world. There are tons of places, museum, bridges and parks that you can visit. Also, you can stop one of the restaurants to experience the Czech cuisine from the first hand. Is It Safe to Travel to Prague? The short and definitive answer is YES! Prague is a safe city for travellers and tourists. But every city has its own dangers. Especially during the summer be careful about pickpocketing when you are with the crowd (especially on the tram line 22). Also, you may ignore to go to the park near the Prague main train station where is known as Sherwood among the locals. Because that park is commonplace for the holes, drug addicts and beggars. To check more tips about the travel scams in Prague you can read this page from TravelScams. Based on Travel Safe Abroad, Prague has 83 safety out of 100 which is very high for a city like this touristic. If you need to call the officials in case of emergency you can use the numbers below without charge or payment. Czech police: 158 Czech city police: 156 European emergency phone number: 112

Vltava rivers divide Prague into two (Source).

History of Prague: Past to Present

We can define the area between Prague Castle and Vysehrad Castle as a settlement area of Prague. This zone always was the home of different cultures, nations, tribes and countries even from ancient history. The official foundation date of Prague is 880 but its history goes more way back to the pages of the history. In this part of Prague travel guide, I will divide Prague history into the centuries to be more specific and understandable. Especially from the 13th century, Prague witnessed a very important event almost every century and each of them added value to the city historical treasure. 4000 BC: First Settlements Yes, that's true. Prague's history dates back to even 4000 BC. It is well known that before the arrival of Slavs there were Celtic and German tribes all over the Prague. Even the name of Bohemia comes from the Celtic Tribe called Boii. This name is still in use at the western part of the Czech. During 6th Century: Arrival of Slavs Based on the historical records, during the 6th century, both banks of the Vltava river were occupied by the Slavs. Also, Czech and Zlicanis were built two wooden fortresses on the two sides on the Vltava river, within their borders. Sometime later, Avars conquered the Prague until the uniting of all Slav tribes by the Frankish trader Samo. After the union of all Slav tribes, they drove to Avars out of Prague.

You can see the items belongs to the Slav from 6th century at the Prague city museum (Source). 9th to 13th Century: The Foundation Prague was the part of the short-lived Great Moravian Empire but Cezch finally gets their independence from them. Anyway, the Great Moravian Empire only lived around 70 years until the end of the 906 from 833. As I mentioned above, the Prague Castle was built by the Prince Borivoj and after this Prague became a very important centre for Bohemia and also for Europe. Prague Castle quickly became an important trade spot for the merchant from all over Europe because of Prague's strategic and logistic location. In 1085, the first stone bridge over the Vltava river built by the first king of Czech, Vratislav II. This first stone bridge, Judith Bridge collapsed due to massive flood in 1342 and a new bridge took its place in 1357, Charles Bridge (Karluv Most). In the 13th century, Old Town (Stare Mesto) started to built by the order of King Otakar. 14th Century: Roman Reign Holy Roman Emperor John of Luxembourg became the King of Bohemia. Prague city grew and grew under the right of Luxembourg dynasty. Especially during the rule of Charles IV, Prague became one of the largest and richest city all over the years. Many historical places of Prague founded during this reign, Hradcany, Old Town Hall, Charles Bridge, New Town and more. Charles IV was elected the Holy Emperor of the Roman Empire and as a result of this event, Prague became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire.

Charles Bridge over the Vltava river (Source). 15th Century: Hussites This century witnessed the religious conflicts between the Roman Catholic Church and Hussites. The main reason for this conflict was Jan Hus. He was a very strong advocate of the church reform, church convicted for the treason and executed him. Death of the Jan Hus leads the rebellion of the Hussite preacher Jan Zelinsky. As a result of this rebellion, Catholics were driven from the Town Hall and Prague. City started to rule by the Hussites until the next century. Also, a couple of important places and Prague Castle damaged during the rebellion. 16th Century: Habsburg Family Habsburg family conquered the Prague in 1526 and they reconstructed the damages buildings, monuments and the entire city. About 50 years later, Rudolf II became the Holy Roma Emperor and his reign lasted until 1612. Under his reign, Prague evolved in a very different way, to science and alchemy. Even, Prague got a name for it "Magic Prague". Many famous sciences and alchemist came to Prague and worked at Charles University and other important places.

Drawing of Prague Castle in 1606 (Source). 17th Century: Unfortunate Years of Prague This century was witnessed as very bad and saddening events. During the uprising in 1618 two of the Habsburg councillors and their secretary killed by throwing from the Prague Castle. Like a chain of event, Thirty Years War started after this uprising and much of the Europe and som part of the Bohemia devastated and many people lost their lives. In 1620, Protestant were lost the Battle of the White Mountain and Prague lost its independence too. Saxons invaded the Prague and Swedes moved to the Hradcany and Mala Strana. During this centre, Prague lost more than %50 of its population. 18th Centruy: Dividing of Prague The major planning about the settlement plans of Prague held in 1784. Prague divided into the four urban areas; Old Town (Stare Mesto), Lesser Town (Malá Strana), Hradčany and New Town (Nové město). Especially during this century, the revival of Cezch culture and language come to in an existence under the reign of the Joseph II. This era of Czech and Prague history also known as National Revival. National Theatre Prague is one of the biggest symbol this century. You can take a look at the National Theatre Prague from street view below. 19th Century: Industrial Revolution This century is the times for the industrial revolution like many cities around the world. Especially with the construction of the main railway line between Prague and Vienna added great value to the industrial revolution.  Also in 1890, a very important monument, the Prague National Museum was opened. However, the population of Prague increase in a very high number during the century with the effect of the industrial revolution. 20th Century: Modern Prague After World War I, Czechoslovakia became an independent country as a result of collapsing of the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1918. Like during the previous times, once more Prague Castle became a home of the new ruler, first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. During World War II, Czechoslovakia invaded by Nazi Germany and stayed under the invasion until the end of the war. After World War II, Czechoslovakia ruled by the communist until the 17th November 1989. Especially in the 1950s, Czechoslovakia suffered a big economic crisis and depression. After the Velvet Revolution, Czechoslovakia became a democratic country and first democratic elections held on January 1990 and Václav Havel became the president. Only 3 years later, Czechoslockiva divide into the Czech Republic and Slovakia and Prague became the capital of the country.

Modern Prague at night (Source).

How to Go to Prague?

Prague Vaclav Havel Airport City has one airport located in the western part of the city. Prague Vaclav Havel Airport is about 15 km away from the Prague Old City Center. This airport is one of the oldest airports in Cezch and Europe, constructed in 1932. Unfortunately, there is no metro or tram line from Prague Vaclav Havel Airport to the Prague city centre. In addition to this, there is an extensive bus network covers the public transport needs between Prague Vaclav Havel Airport and Prague city centre. Don't forget to buy your bus tickets from the inside of the airport. However, there is a stop for the intercity coach lines operates by the RegioJet. The other option is to use the Airport Express line operates between Prague Main Train Station (Hlavni nadrazi) and Vaclav Havel Airport. You can find a detailed list of bus lines that you can use below. Also, check the table to find more information about bus lines and where you can purchase bus tickets inside the airport. 100: Zličín 119: Divoká Šárka - Veleslavín train station 191: Divoká Šárka - Petřiny - Anděl 910 (Night Line): I.P. Pavlova - Kačerov - Modřany Airport Express: From Prague Main Train Station to the airport RegioJet intercity bus lines: In front of Terminal 1 and Terminal 2 (under the airbridge) Bus Line Hours Metro Transfer Travel Time 100 05.13 - 00.32 Line A 18 min 119 05.13 - 00.32 Line B 15 min 191 04.54 - 00.35 Line B 50 min 910 00.00 - 04.00 - 80 min Airport Express 05.30 - 22.00 - 30 min Ticket Office Opening Hour Closing Hour Terminal 1 07.00 22.00 Terminal 2 07.00 22.00 Visitor Center (Terminal 1) 07.00 22.00 Visitor Center (Terminal 2) 08.00 22.00 Ticket Machines 7/24 Prague Main Train Station: Hlavni nadrazi Because of Prague's central location, it is also possible to go to the city by using international train lines from other countries. Prague Main Train Station or with its local name Hlavni nadrazi is located at the very centre of Prague. Both domestic and international train lines operate between Prague Main Train Station (Hlavni nadrazi) and other cities. You can check the table below to find the most common lines operates to Prague from other countries. You can also transfer to the metro line C, tram and bus lines from the train station. Route Company Travel Time Berlin (Germany) EuroCity 4.5 hours Bratislava (Slovakia) EuroCity / RegioJet 4 hours Budapest (Hungary) EuroCity 7 hours Vienna (Austria) Railjet / RegioJet 4 hours Warsaw (Poland) EuroCity 8 hours

Prague Public Transport: Maps, Tickets and Lines

The essential part of the Prague travel guide is the details about the Prague public transport. Public transport maps, tickets, lines and more detailed that you can use during your time Prague. The first thing you need to know about Prague public transport is the name of the company. All the public transport operated the PID, Prague Integrated Transport. Prague has one of the best and efficient public transport systems in entire Europe. Maybe the city doesn't have tons of metro lines but with existing metro, tram and bus lines public transportation system covers most of the Prague city. In this part of Prague travel guide, you will find information about buying public transport tickets, travelling around Prague, maps and crucial information about public transport. I will divide the public transport into four sections, metro, tram, bus lines and other options. What Type of Ticket Do You Need? Like in many cities, Prague also has different type of public transport tickets you can buy. Basically you can buy one of the four different types of public transport tickets in Prague; 30 minutes, 90 minutes, 24 hours and 72 hours. If you are looking for a longer time period you may buy Monthly (30 days), Quarterly (90 days) or Yearly but you won't need them as long as you are not going to live in Prague. You can find the common rules and more details about the Prague public transport tickets below. Tickets are valid on all lines (Metro, tram, bus, ferry, funicular, S-lines except AirportExpress bus line) All tickets are fully transferable Validity Full Price Discounted 30 min. 1,00 USD 0,50 USD 90 min. 1,30 USD 0,65 USD 24 hours 4.50 USD 2,25 USD 72 hours 13,00 USD - Monthly 27,00 USD 670 Quarterly 80,00 USD 1880 Yearly 250,00 USD 6100 *Don't forget to check the exact prices from PID website. Where Can You Buy Tickets? You can use one of the multiple ways to buy Prague public transport tickets. Remember you may need to use cash money to buy tickets from several spots. It is always better to carry a low amount of cash or change money with you in case you need. However, don't forget to validate your tickets when boarding to the metro, tram, bus or any other public transport vehicle. You can find ways and places to buy Prague public transport tickets below. Information centres around the city 3 of them is located at the Prague main train station (Hlavna Nadrazi) 1 of them is located at the Wenceslas Square near the Mustek metro station 1 of them is located at the Prague City Hall Inside all trams (Only with credit/debit card) Inside every bus from the driver (Only with credit/debit card) These tickets are a little more expensive than the other ways to avoid the crowd and waiting time Yellow vending machines located all around the Prague Newspapers shops A mobile application of PID from AppStore and Google Play Prague Metro System: Line A, B and C The backbone of the Prague public transport system is the metro lines. Prague metro carries more than 600 million (Yes, million) passengers every year. That's equal almost half of the total number of traveller every year. In total, the Prague metro system has over a 60 station on a 62 km of line. Prague metro system first opened in 1974 and its more than 45 years old. Despite of its age, metro stations and cars are quite clean, fast, efficient and the most important secure to use and travel. Currently, there are 3 lines at the Prague metro system and defined with colours. A new line referred to as the blue line is planning to be opened in 2023-2024. You may find the details of metro lines below and their intersections with other metro lines. Green Line (Metro Line A): From Nemocnice Motol to Depo Hostivar Yellow Line (Metro Line B): Mustek Red Line (Metro Line C): Muzeum Yellow Line (Metro Line B): From Zlicin to Cerny Most Green Line (Metro Line A): Mustek Red Line (Metro Line C): Florenc Red Line (Metro Line C): From Lethany to Haje Green Line (Metro Line A): Muzeum Yellow Line (Metro Line B): Florenc Blue Line (Metro Line D): From Namesti Miru to Depo Pisnice  Operating Hours of Prague Metro System Prague metro systems operate from 04.45 to 00.00. Generally, metro cars run with 1 to 3 min intervals during the day, a bit longer (4 to 10 min) outside the rush hours.  You can take a look at the PID website to find the exact time table or use mobile apps. During your trip on the Prague metro system, you will hear regular announces about the current and next stations, door closings and openings and a couple of warnings about using the metro. You use the night tram and buses outside the operational hours of the metro system. On below, you can find the Prague metro system map. You can't see the Blue Line (Metro Line D) on the map because it will be opened around 2023-2024.

Prague has a very extensive metro line system that covers most of the city (Source). Prague Trams: Spider Web Network Tram network of Prague is really like a spider web. Because in total, there more than 500 km of tram tracks around the city. After the Prague metro system, trams are the 2nd most used public transport system of Prague. There are also night tram lines that you can use during the outside of the operating hours of the Prague metro system. In all of the tramlines of Prague, two of them are the most important for the travellers who came to Prague. In almost every Prague travel guide these two tram lines specified separately; Tram line 22 and 41. You can find the details about these lines below. Tram Line 22: Also called as the Tram 22 follow the best scenic routes around the city with amazing and stunning views. During the trip, you may see the National Theatre, Prague Castle, Belveder and more. Tram Line 41: Also called as the Historical Tram 41 is a historic tram that runs only on weekends between April to mid-November.

You can choose the historical line no. 41 to get around Prague (Source). Operating Hours of Prague Tram System Trams in Prague operates between 04.30 to 00.00 with 8-10 minutes of intervals during the weekdays. Intervals change up to 8 to 15 minutes during the weekends. Also, after midnight there are night trams lines  (Lines 51 to 58) until the 04.30 with around 30 to 40 minutes of intervals. You can check the PID website to find the timetables of each tram line.

Tram network of Prague covers almost every corner of the city (Source). Prague City Buses In Prague, you may not need to use buses unless to go to Prague Vaclav Havel Airport or Prague Zoo. Because metro and tram network is very sufficient to get around during your time in Prague. Buses are generally used by the people to go to more outskirts areas of the city. They are running between 04.30 to 00.00 like metro and trams. Also, there are night buses (Lines 501 to 513) that can be used after midnight to 04.30. There are two most important bus lines to be know by you in case of you need to use them. 100 (Bus line): From Zlicin (Metro Line B) to the Prague Vaclav Havel Airport 112 (Bus line): From Nadrazi Holesovice (Metro Line C) to the Prague Zoo 119 (Bus line): From Nadrazi Veleslavin (Metro Line A) to the Prague Vaclav Havel Airport Prague Funicular (Petrin) and Chairlift (Prague Zoo) These two may not be count as part of the public transport system in Prague but I think it will be helpful to give some information about them in this Prague travel guide. You can use the Petrin funicular system to go to the Petrin Lookout Tower from the Ujezd tram stop (Lines 9, 12, 15, 20, 22, 23). You can read the full post about Petrin Lookout Tower to get more information about it. Also, there is a chairlift at the Prague Zoo that you can use inside the Prague Zoo to get around. Like the Petrin Chairlift, you can find the detailed information about it on the Prague Zoo post. Taking a Taxi in Prague: Be Aware of Scams Like any cities around the world taking a taxi in Prague could be unpleasant from time to time. You should know where are you going, which route you need to take unless you are using a private transfer or Uber. Taxi drivers may overcharge you. Always ask the price before you get on the taxi and about the route. But during the days you may not need to use the taxis because of the extensive public transportation network of Prague. You can check the TravelScams for more information.

Top 20 Places to Visit in Prague

In this part of Prague travel guide, you may find to top 20 places where you can visit to enjoy and the witness of the history of Prague and Czech. I will give only brief information about every place and you can read the detailed posts about each of them separately. This list is not ordered in any way, just random listing. You may prioritize of the places based on your desire.

Where You Can Stay in Prague?

As you read above Prague has a very extensive network almost covers all of the city areas. My suggestion is to find a place to stay on both Old or New Town. Because these places are on the metro lines that you can use public transport directly or even take a walk directly. I want to give more detailed information in this Prague travel guide but where you can stay in Prague should a separate post but you can find the 5 districts where you can stay during your time in Prague. Old Town: Heart of the Old Prague New Town: Very close to the Old Town Zizkov: Close to the nightlife Vinohrady: Coolest and quietest Mala Strana: A district for the families Olsany Cemetery: Largest Necropolis of Prague Visiting the biggest necropolis of Prague may be a very different experience for you. Today, there are more than 65000 of graves belongs to the various people from different nationals. Olsany Cemetry is not located very close to the Prague city centre but easily accessible with public transport.

Red Army section in the Olsany Cemetery (Source). Vysehrad Castle: National Cultural Monument of Prague Everyone knows the Prague Castle but there is one more national cultural monument in Prague worth to visit. Vysehrad Castle located about 3 km south of the Wenceslas Square on the eastern bank of the Vltava river. Besides the historical places and building in the Vysehrad, you can enjoy the large park by taking short walks. Dancing House Prague: Postmodern Hotel Another popular and well-known building in Prague is the Dancing House. Many just take a short walk to see the building from outside where is located at the eastern side of Jiraskuv Most Bridge. But Dancing House is also a hotel where you can stay and have a restaurant at the top to have dinner with an amazing view of Prague. National Theatre Prague: Národní Divadlo A very important symbol and a national monument of both Prague and Czech is the National Theatre Prague (Národní Divadlo). There are more than one building belongs to the National Theatre Prague but the main one is located very close to the Charles Bridge. If you have time don't forget to buy a ticket and enjoy the show. St. Nicholas Church: Famous Baroque Church of Prague Prague has much iconic building with impressive architecture. St. Nicholas Church where is located at the Old Town of Prague is a very good example of the Barque style architecture in Prague. Also, there was a Jesuit College next to the church where is still in use by the Charles University.

St. Nicholas Church from outside (Source). John Lennon Wall: Graffiti Wall of Prague Prague witnessed a very huge protest against different government and regimes during history. On this occasion, John Lennon Wall became the centre for the people who want to show their reaction against oppression after the death of John Lennon. John Lennon Wall is located on the western bank of the Vltava river where is very close to the Charles Bridge and Clementinum. Petrin Lookout Tower: Watch The Bohemia Let me tell you this, Petrin Lookout Tower is not as huge as the Eiffel Tower in Paris but still worth to visit. It's more like a small replica of the Eiffel Tower but you will definitely enjoy with the view from here through thee all Prague. Some of the Prague travel guides may ignore this cute tower but you should see it. Strahov Monastery and Strahov Library Just located on the southwest of the Prague Castle, you can visit the 2nd oldest monetary in Prague, Strahov Monastery. There is also Strahov Library worth to visit and very famous with its Theological and Philosophical Hall. I'm strongly suggesting to you to visit Strahov Monastery and Strahov Library, be sure you won't regret it. The Jewish Quarter (Josefov) and Old Jewish Cemetry A place for massive graves and pains in the very heart of the Prague Old Town. The Jewish Quarter (Josefov) is a Jewish Ghetto of Prague where is home of the people who suffered because of their belief and lifestyle. You can visit Six Synagogue of Prague and also the oldest Jewish Cemetery in Prague. Prague Zoo: One of Best with Over 6000 Animals If you get bored (probably not) getting around in Prague centre you may visit the Prague Zoo to spend your day with thousands fo animal from everywhere around the world. Prague Zoo is also known as a Prague Zoological Garden because of its historical and ongoing studies over both animal and plant species.

Giraffe exposition is one of the most-visited parts of the Prague Zoo (Source). Prague Municipal House: Home of Smetana Hall The very centre of the cultural and social activities in Prague is the Prague Municipal House and its Smetana Hall. Prague Municipal House (Obenic Dum) is located very close to The Church of Our Lady before Tyn. Smetana Hall of the Prague Municipal House has capacity more than 1200 people and the hall is just AMAZING and STUNNING! National Gallery Prague: Kinsky Palace Kinsky Palace is the major building of the National Gallery Prague and the well-known and visited one in Prague. National Gallery Prague have couple of building where you can visit permanent and temporary collection bout both Czech culture and other topics. Kinsky Palace is located at the Old Town Center and very iconic building with its pink-white colour. The Church of Our Lady before Tyn Another and iconic religious building located in the Old Town Center is The Church of Our Lady before Tyn. Tyn Church is older than 600 years and magnificent wit its gothic style architecture. You may enter the church through a very narrow street just next to the Kinsky Palace at the square. St. Vitus Cathedral: The Largest Temple in Prague You can visit the largest and the most important religious building of Prague inside the Prague Castle. St. Vitus Cathedral where is also the centre of the archbishop. Don't forget to visit the St. Wenceslas Chapel inside the St. Vitus Cathedral and take a look at the holy relics from the previous centries. Old Town Square and the Astronomical Clock of Prague The most visited part of the Prague is the Old Town Square and Astronomical Clock of Prague. Old Town is also known as the Stare Mesto and also the home of a couple of other iconic landmarks inside the Old Town Square. You can also visit the Kinsky Palace, Tyn Church and St. Nicholas Church at the Square.

Winter Market on the Old Town Square (Source).

The Clementinum and The National Library of Prague

With more than 6 millions of books, The Clementinum and the National Library is a place where you should visit. The Clementinum and the National Library is located just next to the eastern entrance of the Charles Bridge and also very close to the Old Town Square. There are different part of the Clementinum where you visit like Astronomical Tower, Baroque Library and Vysehrad Codex. Prague National Museum: Oldest Museum in Czech Located at the beginning of the Wenceslas Square, Prague National Museum (Národní Muzeum)  is the oldest museum in Czech.  There are more than 14 million items are currently holds by the museum. In total, there 13 different building belongs to the Prague National Museum but the major and biggest is located at the entrance of the Wenceslas Square. Wenceslas Square: Prague’s New Town (Nové Mesto) A part of the Prague New Town, Wenceslas Square witnessed many major events during the recent history, resolutions, wars and protests. There are couple of important and historical buildings located around or very close to the Wenceslas Square where worth to visit like Palac Koruna, Adam Pharmacy, Hotel Julis, Wiehl House and more. Charles Bridge (Karluv Most): Oldest Bridge in Prague There are couple old impressive bridges over the Vltava river where is divides Prague into two. Charles Bridge (Karluv Most) is the oldest and most famous among those bridges. In total, there 30 statues over the bridge, 15 on the northern side and 15 on the southern side. Each statue has its own story where you need to spend a couple of minutes to read experience. Charles Bridge is the busiest pedestrian crossing over the Vltava river between the Prague Old Town and Prague Castle.

Prague Castle Tour: Home of Bohemia’s Kings

The biggest witness of Czech history is the Prague Castle. Where is mentioned in detailed every single of Prague travel guide, Prague Castle is a place where you should visit. Inside the Prague Castle there are a couple of other iconic and important places where you can visit like, Old Royal Palace, St. Vitus Cathedral, St. George’s Basilica, Rosenberg Palace and more.

How to Discover Prague: Tours and Tickets

You don't need to join any tours or activities to discover Prague. Just take a metro or tram and go wherever you want. Also, if you like to read that's enough to discover everywhere by yourself. But based on my experience joining tours specially designed to discover Prague will definitely worth its price and help you to get the most of you can from Prague. I will give three of the most rated tours about Prague you can joint to discover the Prague. Don't forget the other tours and read the comment before buying any of them. However, if you share your experiences on the comment section about the Prague tour I will update the content of this Prague travel guide to be more helpful to the others.   Prague Castle: Small-Group Tour with Local Guide In this 3 hours long tour you can explore the Prague Castle in the most way possible with a live tour guide in English, German, Spanish and French. Don't forget to wear comfortable shoes before joining the tour to avoid foot pain during the day. You may find the details about the tour below. Tram and admission ticket to the Prague Castle included Expert located guide, commentary and headphones Skip the line privileges Small groups Hidden highlights Full refund if you won't enjoy the tour Prague: Ultimate Jewish Quarter Tour with Tickets Included The Jewish Quarter of Prague (Josefov) is a place where you should visit and witnessed the history of pain and massive graves. This 3-hour long tour is the most extensive and comprehensive one if you want to join a tour to visit the Jewish Quarter. Also, you have a live tour guide with English, German, French, Spanish or Italian. Visiting the Old-New Synagogue Exploring the Old Jewish Cemetery Holocaust victims memorial Exterior visit of the Spanish Synagogue House of Franz Kafka Prague Private Full-Day Walking Tour This one may be a bit of expensive than the others but be sure that it is the best one to discover Prague with 6 hour-long walking tour. You have to spend your whole day for this tour but if you want to discover whole Prague it is the right answer. You will have only a group of 10 people with a private guide and have his/her full attention. Don't forget to wear comfortable clothes and shoes and get ready for the thousands of step in a day! Private guided tour in English Discover the every secret of Prague Learn how life in Prague with live examples Visit most of the iconic landmarks like Charles Bridge, Old Town Square, Jewish Quarter and more  

Prague Travel Guide and F.A.Q.

I try to give you every detail about the basic facts about Prague, the history of Prague, how can you go to the Prague, Prague public transport system, districts you can stay in Prague, top 20 places to visit in Prague and top 3 tours to join Prague in this Prague travel guide. Every contribution will be made by you on the comment section will help me to improve the content and quality of this Prague travel guide. However, you may find some general Frequently Asked Questions about Prague below to find the answers of the most asked questions. How can you go to the Prague city centre from Prague Vaclav Havel Airport? You can use the airport express goes to the Prague Main Train station or take one of the bus lines 100, 119, 191 and 910 (Nightline). If you take a taxi from Prague Vaclav Havel Airport to the city centre it should take around 30-40 USD. Is Prague Safe for Tourist? Yes, but be aware of some places in the city. You can find full details on the Travel Safe Abroad about Prague. Can You Drink Tap Water in Prague? Yes, tap water can be drink in Prague but from time to time a high level of chlorine may irritate you. Do People Speak English in Prague? They may not know English as native level but you won't have any problem communicating with people anywhere. Is Prague Expensive City? No, not at all. You may have a very good time in Prague with mid-level of travel budget. Can You Spend Euros or Dollars in Prague? Czech uses the crown (CZK) as its currency but euros and dollar can be used all around the city. However, you need the Czech Crown if you need to buy tickets in cash. Is There Any Nightline For Public Transport in Prague? For trams, you can use lines from 51 to 58 and buses from 501 to 513 between 00.00 and 04.30. Is UBER Active in Prague? Yes, you can use UBER to get around in Prague. Also, it is way cheaper than the regular yellow taxis of Prague, around 1 USD per each km. Read the full article

Solid silver and diamond horse pendant set with a fragment of a 2000+ year old ancient Celtic coin, that also features a horse design. The coin was struck by a Celtic tribe called the Boii, who lived in the mountainous regions to the north of Italy over two thousand years ago. Throughout the classical world Celtic tribes like the Boii were known as fierce warriors, very capable cavalry fighters and skilled charioteers. Horses are probably the animals most strongly associated with these ancient people, and horse motives are often found on their art and coins. #horse #horses #horsesofinstagram #equestrian #ancient #coins #money #lucky #boii #celtic #history #ancienthistory #horseart https://www.instagram.com/p/B4k_UxOh5hc/?igshid=10jpu7giv5wp5

Back to Germania

Disclaimers and Table Of Contents

<- Prev

Knowing where I am, and when, is a good start. It does bring to light the fact that I really have no firm idea of what all was going on at the time. I'm aware that Caesar had conquered Gaul and is now full of holes. There is a certain fun little side game here though; wherein I have access to a translated contemporary text, footnotes from the translator from a century ago, and now access to modern theories on what was going on at the time. Which is part of why I'm getting sidetracked so often because I like trying to corroborate these things.

To continue: "2.) The people of Germany appear to me indigenous, and free from intermixture with foreigners, either as settlers or casual visitants." Oh did the Nazis have fun with that. (Actually, they had an obsession with the whole text and I probably need to give a read to "A Most Dangerous Book: Tacitus’s Germania from the Roman Empire to the Third Reich" by Christopher B Krebs).

Skipping a paragraph, this is later expounded on. "4. I concur in opinion with those who deem the Germans never to have intermarried with other nations; but to be a race, pure, unmixed, and stamped with a distinct character. Hence a family likeness pervades the whole, though their numbers are so great: eyes stern and blue; ruddy hair; large bodies, powerful in sudden exertions, but impatient of toil and labor, least of all capable of sustaining thirst and heat. Cold and hunger they are accustomed by their climate and soil to endure."

This is where I went scrambling for two things, a Latin transcription of the text (not that I know Latin, but I can be patient enough to look up each and word and cobble enough meaning to figure out if the translation is faithful) and a biography of the translator (where I previously settled on Edward Brooks Jr being Anglo-American and probably not a 19th century German Nationalist).

So stop and think. This is a text written 1,850 years before the events that make these sentences cringe-worthy occurred. Written by a Roman concerning tribes that have been and will be a threat to the Roman Empire since the Cimbrian Wars of 113-101 BCE up to the Sack of Rome in 546.

The footnote for paragraph claims "12. The ancient writers called all nations indigenae (i.e. inde geniti), or autochthones, "sprung from the soil," of whose origin they were ignorant."

The commentary on "a race, pure, unmixed," after considerable effort to disassociate it from modern connotation, might more clearly read as "a race, isolated, just coming into historical record." I doubt it would be far off the mark to think of many Romans saying "They all look the same, they don't look like us, and there's a lot of them."

The next thing my brain wandered off and pondered on were the Gauls. "The Gauls are tall of body, with rippling muscles, and white of skin, and their hair is blond, and not only naturally so, but they also make it their practice by artificial means to increase the distinguishing colour which nature has given it. For they are always washing their hair in lime-water, and they pull it back from the forehead to the top of the head and back to the nape of the neck, with the result that their appearance is like that of Satyrs and Pans, since the treatment of their hair makes it so heavy and coarse that it differs in no respect from the mane of horses. Some of them shave the beard, but others let it grow a little; and the nobles shave their cheeks, but they let the moustache grow until it covers the mouth." [Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, book 5, chapter 28, trans. CH Oldfather]

Looking at the geographical coverage of Hallstatt and La Tène culture archaeology, the people we would call Celts covered most of Europe north of the Alps with particular cores right in the heart of Germania (this covers a date range of 800-450 BCE for Hallstatt and up to 1 CE for La Tène giving way to Roman conquest). Meanwhile, in Denmark/Jutland and the Scandinavian lands beyond the North and Baltic seas, from 1700-500 BCE, the Germanic ancestors were having a lot of fun with bronze. From 500 BCE to the current era covers a period called the Jastorf Culture where the Germani migrated south from Scandinavia and filled in a gap in the north of Europe until they came into contact with La Tène cultures, and presumably picked up a membership to the Iron Age.

My learning of this little migration at this time lines up pretty well with Tacitus. Jumping back to paragraph 2: "- and free from intermixture with foreigners, either as settlers or casual visitants. For the emigrants of former ages performed their expeditions not by land, but by water; [13] and that immense, and, if I may so call it, hostile ocean, is rarely navigated by ships from our world." What made me laugh is the associated footnote that reads "It is, however, well established that the ancestors of the Germans migrated by land from Asia. Tacitus here falls into a very common kind of error, in assuming a local fact (viz. the manner in which migrations took place in the basin of the Mediterranean) to be the expression of a general law.—ED."

I couldn't help but imagine the editor reading Snorri's Forward in the Prose Edda and just rolling with it. (Granted, this may refer to an even earlier migration I haven't looked into regarding Proto-Indo-Europeans moving in from Scythia, but that’s a digression I don’t want to go into right now.)

Back to the Celts, particularly the Gauls; Rome had spent the last 400 years securing a border against Gallic invaders starting with Brennus of the Senones successfully sacking Rome in 390 BCE. Celtic tribes at this time were also pushing into the Carpathian region of Dacia to the east and Pannonia to the west. An advance that lead to (a different) Brennus nearly sacking Delphi. (They wisely waited until Alexander the Great had died before trying this.) This general southern push of Celtic/Gallic peoples from ~400-250 BCE ties in neatly with the southern expansion of Jastorf culture findings in the same time frame.

Generally speaking, migrations and invasions are rarely so cut and dry that peoples A are wholly displaced and dispersed by peoples B. Lacking information on what actually happened at the borders between Jastorf and La Tene cultures, how they interacted as both Germani and Celt moved southward, I'll for the moment assume a median model of trade, warfare, raids and, contrary to Tacitus' opinion, an intermixing of Celtic and Germanic bloodlines.

The Germanic Cimbri tribe offers a glimpse of this probable cultural blending. Having swept southeast from Jutland-Denmark through Germania and first clashing with Rome in Noricum to kick off the Cimbrian War from 113-101 BCE. While Caesar, Pliny, Tacitus, and Strabo consider the Cimbri to be Germanic, at least one ancient scholar, Appian in his Civil Wars, consider the Cimbri to be Celtic. The main Cimbrian chief from the wars, Boiorix, has a heavily Celtic name with the "-rix" suffix. The name translates to "King of the Boii" that signifies him as a leader of a Celtic tribe even though he is leading a Germanic tribe. (Dat Boii being one of the Gallic tribes pushed out of Cisalpine Gaul into Bohemia [Boiohaemum] back around the 193 BCE).

Fifty years later, Julius Caesar declared a delineation between Celtic and Germanic tribes being the Rhine river, but the Rhine does not appear to have been as much a blockade against Jastorf expansion as the Danube (and Roman presence along it) did. The Rhine line seems to be more politically and militarily motivated in that Caesar wasn't interested in taking his legions east of the Rhine. It is said that the Romans were rather indiscriminant in labeling Transalpine tribes as Gallic, Celtic or Germanic as it was. Grouping the barbarian tribes as Gallic, Celtic or Germanic may well have been more an issue of geography than ethnography.

I would venture to take this viewpoint positively in figuring what Tacitus might mean in his use of the phrase "intermarried with other nations," in particularly what the Roman concept of a nation is. For if the Romans considered the Germanic and Celtic tribes to be close enough to be careless with their labels of them, a collection of large, muscular peoples with reddish-blond hair and beards might be sufficient to call "unmixed."

Next ->

Tagged by: @party-poison-vantas Rules: Answer the 30 questions then tag 20 blogs you would like to get to know better

Nicknames: My friends don’t call me a nickname, but my family calls me Sis.

Gender: Female

Star sign: Virgo 

Height: 5’3’’ (& 1/2)

Time: EST bruh

Birthday: September 6th

Favorite Bands: Boyce Avenue, Avenged Sevenfold, The Offspring, Celtic Women, Your Favorite Martian (most random list ever tbh) 

Favorite solo artists: Alex Goot & Sam Tsui 

Song stuck in my head: Every Breath by Boyce Avenue, literally my jam always

Last movie watched:Pitch Perfect. Love that movie 

Last show watched: Secret Life of the American Teenager. Don’t judge

When did i create my blog: Like late 2015 early 2016

What do i post: Literally everything. My favorite things are probably climbing class, south park, and fnaf though.

Last thing i googled: Writing prompts lol

Do you have other blogs: I have two other ones. Long story short, I got locked out of both blogs because I’d try to go on them on the computer and it wouldn’t recognize my password no matter how much I changed it, which then logged me out on the app. Yes, this happened to me twice lol

Do you get asks: Nah people usually just reblog my posts and start things there lol

Why did you choose your url: Whelp my other accounts were the username I use on literally everything else which is squirrelbugg99, but obviously u cannot use and already existing username. I was in marching band, I love turtles, and 8 was my jersey number in soccer. 

Following: 188

Followers: Like 60 or something small like that (it’s actually 99 lmao)

Favorite colours: olive green and turquoise

Average hours of sleep: either 12 hours or 4 hours. No in-between.

Lucky number: 8 boii

Instruments: Oh boy. I can play clarinet, bass clarinet, contrabass clarinet, tenor saxophone, and oboe. 

What am i wearing: A tank top and underwear. I never wear pants man.

How many blankets do i sleep with: In the summer like 1. in the winter, 300

Dream job: I want to become an author who writes really bomb ass novels

Dream trip: I would like to go to a Makiplier tour. Literally just once in my life, even just for 5 minutes, with my boi @party-poison-vantas

Favourite food: Pasta. All of it

Nationality: I am American, but my lineage is mostly Irish and Scottish. According to my mother, we descend from Scottish royalty so I am technically a Scottish princess. I hope one day to reclaim my throne.

Favorite song right now: Every Breath by Boyce Avenue. Forever my jam

Probably not tagging anyone bc I don’t see anyone doing this if I tag them lol

The Celtic People CT037

The Religion of the Ancient Celts (1911) Chapter 2: The Celtic People

by J. A. MacCulloch

A broad overview of all fields of Celtic mythology which aims to identify the core beliefs of the ancient Celtic religion.

    Names Used in this Section

Celtæ

Auvergnats

Lozère

Jura

Professor Sergi

Professor Keane

Belgæ

Broca

Aquitani

Strabo

Galli

Po

Elbe

Rhine

Italiotes

Kymri

Walloons

Grenelle

Sclaigneaux & Borreby

Dr. Beddoe

Dr. Thurnam

Professor Ripley

Wanderjahre

Aremorici

Arecluta

athair, ayr iasg

pater, piscis

caora - kaperax

uper

fairguni

percunion

Ercunio, the Hercynian forest

Epidii - epos ech equus

Parisii - Qarisii

Pictones, Pictavi of Poictiers - pictos, picti - quicto

Sequana, seine

Professor Rhŷs

Mr. Nicholson

Professor Windisch

Dr. Stokes

Professor Meyer

Dr. MacBain

Cassiterides

Qretanis - Pretanis

Ynys Pridain

Pretanikaí Iísoi

Cruithne = Qritani = Pretani

Pictavi - Picti, quicto, cicht

Eumenius

Caledonii

Peanfahel

St. Columba

Scotti

Rhine, the Elbe, and the Danube

Hyperboreans

Ripœan mountains

Boreas

Hecatæus

Galatæ

Galli

dunon

Magos

devos

Livy

Timagenes

king Ambicatus

Bellovesus

Segovesus

Bituriges

Celticum

Ambicatus

Arverni

Aedui

Suessiones

Boii

Insubri

  Religion of the Ancient Celts can be found on Sacred Texts.

You can find out more about J. A. McCulloch on Wikipedia.

Try the Celtic Myth Podshow for a dramatic re-telling of the Tales and Stories of the Ancient Celts at http://celticmythpodshow.com or in Apple Podcasts.

Our theme music is "Gander at the Pratie Hole" by Sláinte.  You can find their music on the Free Music Archive.

Check out this episode!

Celts of western and northern Ukraine ☀️ 7 BC - 5 AD

Forgotten ancient Celts of western and northern Ukraine (7 BC - 5 AD). Did you known that second by size in Europe Celtic metallurgical center was located near Mukachevo (Lovachka) in western Ukraine (in Zakarpattya oblast)? This famous Noric steel (by Celtic tribe of Norici of Pannonia basin that includes Transcarpathian Ukraine) was largely used in the making of Roman weapons. Forests of western and northern Ukraine were home of ancient Celtic tribes, who spoke Celtic languages related to Welsh, Cornish and Irish (though Tacitus noted that the Celtic language of Britain differed little from that of Gaul). Boii and wandering Volcae (who reached as far as Asia Minor) must have been among these Celtic tribes who penetrated into Ukraine. Herodotus mentions Neuri (6 BC) who lived north west of Scythians (that is north western Ukraine) and worshiped the wolf (known Celtic totem), turning into wolves once per year. More and more discoveries have been made (by Ukrainian linguists, archaeologists) which indicated that Celts (along with Slavs and Scytho-Sarmats) played a role in the formation of Ukrainian people. Also the ancient Slavic pottery is closer to Celtic one than to Scythian or Roman. Ancient Celts lived among Slavs and Thracians and influenced them in many ways. The problem of researching so distant past is that we almost do not have any written sources - the comprehensive research of toponymics (placenames), as those done by Tyshchenko (book of 400 pages) discloses the unknown past. Also Celtic city Aliobrix was located in south Odesa oblast of south Ukraine (Danube delta). It should also be remembered that the declaration of Scottish independence, made in 1320 - The Declaration of Arbroath solemnly declares to the English king Edward that Celtic Scots came from Scythia (Ukraine) - hence their name Scots (Scyths): http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/scotland... 

Music: Famous soundtrack "Promentory" from the movie "The Last of Mohicans'" 

Bohemian Jewelry History

Bohemia isn't Only an alternate literary  custom lockets and art scene, but was also a kingdom of Central Europe, which is also known as the Czech Kingdom because of its place in the Western Czech Republic. Bohemia, called after the house of the Celtic"Boii" people, was part of the Holy Roman Empire that surrounded Western and Central Europe for about one thousand years until 1806.

The land of Bohemia has a lengthy history of gems and jewelry. With respect to bead materials, 14th Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV founded Karlstejn Castle to maintain the Bohemian treasure secure, and was believed to have arranged an investigation for jasper. Significant deposits of red pyrope garnet have been found in Bohemia (Central Europe) around the turn of the 16th century. At this moment, the ruler of this region was Rudolph II, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1576 to 1612 and King of Bohemia, who suffered from depression, studied astronomy and had a penchant for collecting objets d'art. Rudolph II was the most well-known gem and mineral collector of the period, with an impressive amount of both, curated by Anselmus de Boodt, that was also appointed Court Doctor. Rudolph II had a keen interest in science and alchemy, and was a keen seeker of the Philosopher's Stone. His Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe had a nose that was partially fashioned from silver and gold after an unfortunate duel left him marginally deficient in the nasal department.

Rudolph II Inherited the name of Emperor with his father's"Habsburg Jaw"; a jutting lower jaw and large lower lip. More cherished items possessed by the Habsburg family comprised a Colombian emerald unguentarium (a bottle-like boat, see picture, left) of over 2,800 carats and a big red almandine garnet gem known as"La Bella Hyacinth", mounted in the center of a double-headed eagle; a symbol of the Habsburg family. According to rumorshe was bisexual; a possible reason for his postponing marriage. His gold, enamel, diamond, ruby, spinel, sapphire and pearl crown became the Imperial Crown of Austria.

Rudolph II transferred The court from Vienna to Prague and encouraged Viennese gem cutters, goldsmiths, including the celebrated Callegari, and other eminent artists and scholars from all over the world to take up residence near. Prague therefore became known as an important centre for culture and art. The famed garnets of Bohemia were found in the mountains to the northeast and northeast of Prague. The glistening red jewels were (and are) trimmed in Prague and then the town of Turnov, to the northeast of Prague. Turnov is a portion of the Bohemian Paradise Geopark; a UNESCO recorded nature reserve where people can discover unique geological phenomena such as dolomite caves, petrified woods, olivine balls and stone materials, such as chalcedony, opal, amethyst, jasper and garnet. Turnov has been famous for rock cutting, engraving and jewelry making for hundreds of years, the most prolific time being the 1700s. A jewelry school was established there in 1884 and two decades later, a museum has been started. "The Museum of the Bohemian Paradise" is a really interesting place for people eager to learn about gems, jewelry, mineralogy and more, particularly Bohemian garnet. Turnov's highest mountain, Kozákov is your website where deposits of garnet have been found. Indeed, the Vincenc Votrubec Quarry at the foothills of Mount Kozákov allows visitors the opportunity to search for gemstone materials, for the price of renting a small hammer.

Bohemian garnet gems are said to possess excellent clarity and innocence. Traditional garnet Jewelry from this area brings to mind the inside of a pomegranate fruit, ripe with shiny reddish seed pods. This is because the stone needed a similar shape and have been traditionally put tightly together with very little metal showing. Bohemian garnet jewelry was very popular during the late nineteenth century, as it had been worn out by Victorians. It was about this time when a jewellery college was started in Turnov. The jewelry made there did not enjoy such great recognition in the 20th century, but in the 21st century, conventional Bohemian garnet jewelry enjoyed a revival.

The beautiful Fiery, red garnets of Bohemia are showcased by the artistry of those jewellery workers who continue the heritage of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Genuine Bohemian garnet jewellery is admired by gem and jewelry enthusiasts all around the world including US First Lady Michelle Obama, who shot home a Bohemian garnet brooch after seeing the Czech Republic in 2009. Since her birthday is in January, garnet is her birthstone. For those planning to buy such pieces straight from the manufacturing supply, certification is recommended to guarantee gemstone authenticity.

The expression"goth" or "ancient" has many meanings: Germanic people of the early Christian era (Goth/Gothic), an unrefined or barbaric individual, or even a follower of a particular type of music and fashion. Gothic stone is an alternative sub-genre which developed after punk in the 1970s. Religious motifs, particularly Celtic crosses and ankh signs are popular gothic motifs. Very similar to rock design, these may be worn out as occult symbols. Gothic rock is characterized by darkness, introspection and romanticism. Typical goth styles are pale skin, kohl-lined eyes, dark clothes, hair and nail polish, and red or dark lips. The clothes could be seen as a mix of Victorian, Vampire films and punk style. Colours favored by goths include deep red, electric blue, purple and green. Lace and velvet are very popular fabrics when it comes to goth-style clothing.

Gothic style Isn't all about Death and darkness, goths also adopt romanticism, particularly the 18th century literary and art movement, which focused on intense emotion, and includes the poetry of William Wordsworth, Lord Byron and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. These merge terror with romanticism. Such functions may be the inspiration for gothic style, which combines the medieval with romanticism and terror, using motifs such as bats, skulls and roses. In reality, improved motifs can be frequently seen in ancient jewelry, whether they're carved diamonds, enamel work or metal. These may be black, red or another color and therefore are attractive when used as necklace pendants, earrings or in bracelets.

Filigreed silver designs are popular goth-style jewellery items. Filigree is intricate metalwork that is made by twisting silver or gold wire and soldering it, making it appear like lace. While filigreed jewellery was created for over 2000 years, it became popular in Europe during the era; the period of the development of the"gothic novel". Filigree jewelry takes several forms, such as necklace earrings, rings and bracelets, where a central bead is surrounded by delicate metalwork.

Chokers, such as those worn by Queen Victoria are among the favorite gothic necklace fashions. Chokers can be made from metal or might simply be a ribbon using a brooch attached in the front. A popular Victorian design is really a ribbon choker with a cameo in the center, following the style of Queen Victoria. Mother-of-pearl and agate are substances often used for the carving of cameos. Alternately, obsidian and ruby-zoisite are intriguing and special alternatives for gemstone cameos. Ribbon chokers may be made more durable and appealing by procuring the ends into grip fittings. Since chokers are close-fitting, the throat of the wearer should be quantified before the length of the choker is decided. For people who do not enjoy cameos, opal, rutile quartz or other interesting cabochons could be a modern interpretation of this design. Color of selection, black alloy is suitable for gothic-style jewellery settings. The most affordable solution is shameful rhodium-plated jewellery, but that can be subject to wear and tear, and might require replating from time to time. When it comes to black diamonds, there are quite a few choices. Jet was a popular gemstone during the Victorian era, when mourning jewelry was worn and was carved into cameos and other contours. However, this is not very durable and also not widely available nowadays. Some good examples of affordable black lady stones are black tourmaline, black spinel and melanite. When it comes to cabochons, agate, black star sapphire, cat's eye scapolite, celebrity garnet and jasper are suitable for black gemstone jewellery. With regard to black gemstone material that could be carved, black jade and onyx are possibilities.

While goths inhabit a particular Fashion niche, it is not essential to be regarded as a goth to enjoy the above mentioned jewelry. Goth-style jewelry may be an alternative embellishment to any outfit without engendering a particular stereotype. In reality, labels can split, but jewellery could be appreciated for its inherent beauty, as opposed to be worn to become part of a specific subculture. Thus, individuals who are pleased to be themselves ought to wear the jewelry, rather than letting the jewelry wear them.

It took The diamond industry a long time to set up the diamond engagement ring as an important part of the culture of marriage. In fact, that the De Beers consortium mounted a concerted decades-long advertising effort, beginning in the late 1930s, to firmly ensconce the association of diamonds with love, courtship and marriage, under the now familiar slogan"diamonds are forever". The effort was probably one of the most prosperous feats of social engineering in the 20th century.

More recently, On the other hand, the diamond ring tradition has started to weaken. Many couples have strayed in the tradition and began to look intently at coloured stone engagement rings instead. There seem to be many reasons for this. Another reason is that some consumers have become conscious that diamonds are now not rare and that the high costs are maintained by a cartel that controls the distribution and supply. Still another reason is that colorless diamonds do not show much individuality; they are in fact commodity products which are made by the millions. Unless you've got a whole lot of money, it's quite difficult to purchase a really unique diamond engagement ring. photo engraved necklace   

Along with These reasons, an individual can't discount the effect of the famous blue sapphire and diamond engagement ring that Prince Charles gave to Lady Diana Spencer in 1981. His brother, Prince Andrew, continued the trend when he introduced with a'pigeon blood' ruby and pearl ring to Sarah Ferguson upon their participation in 1986. Consumers now had both pro and anti-establishment reasons to move them toward colored stone engagement rings.

The jewellery Industry has not been very effective in advertising colored stones for engagement rings, and undoubtedly the diamond industry has exerted pressure on the trade to keep retailers at the diamond camp. Thus many couples that select an engagement ring with a coloured gemstone do it as a job that entails selecting a rock and then a ring design and setting. The outcome is typically a truly personalized ring.

Since engagement Rings need to be very durable, the most popular colored stone for this objective Are sapphire and ruby, since they have exceptional hardness (9 on The Mohs scale) without a cleavage. Other good options include spinel, aquamarine and Some very popular Colored gems, such as tanzanite, are Not a good choice for engagement rings because of their lack of durability.wikipedia

Tulingi

The Tulingi were a Germanic and/or a Belgic tribe located in between modern day Strasbourg, France and Heidelberg, Germany. They were neighboured to the South by the Latobrigi, a Celtic tribe, with whom the Tulingi were in an alliance. In the North they were neighboured by the Marcomanni.

Their origin is not yet fully known. They might have been completely Germanic in origin and settled in these lands around 100AD but they could also be Belgic in origin and adopted the Germanic culture or were taken over by force. They could also be a mix of both.

Their name might come from the Proto-Germanic word Tulguz, which means 'steadfast'. The ingi' suffix you see often in tribe names, means 'to belong' so Tulingi could possibly mean 'the firmly/steadfast people.

Sadly barely anything is known about this tribe. The only written evidence we have about the Tulingi comes from Julius Caesar in his work 'Bello Gallico'. He described the Tulingi as a migrating tribe. Caesar managed to drive away these migrating tribes in 58BC which resulted in the battle between the Romans and the Suebi about which I wrote a post before.

Ceasar however also fought the battle of Bibracte in 58BC between six of his legions and the Celtic tribe of Helvetii, the Helvetii were supported by the Boii, Rauraci and the Tulingi tribes. This battle led to a huge disaster for the Celts, losing around 238,000 people according to Caesar. The Tulingi fought with 36,000 men in this battle.

The beaten tribes were forced back into their homelands, including the Tulingi and that is sadly all we know about this tribe. The debate whether they were Germanic is still on. Why would they ally themselves with the Celts instead of the invading Germanics during Caesar's campaign?

Here is a map that shows the location of the tribe and a painting by Karl Jauslin that shows the parley after the battle of Bibracte.

Quadi

The Quadi were a relatively small Germanic tribe located on the eastern borders of Germania in modern day Moravia, Czech republic. The only known information about this tribe comes from the Romans. The Quadi settled in this area after the Celtic Boii left.

Their history starts around 100BC when the Quadi tribe moved southwards from the Baltic coast. They cut off the Celtic Osi tribe from other Celtics and demand that they pay tribute. Around 8BC the Quadi entered the Celtic Boii territory. The Marcomanni tribe forms a conferation of tribes which includes the Quadi, Lugii, Langobards, Semnones and the Celtic Boii. It is most likely that the Quadi tribe is related to the Marcomanni.

Around 21BC the Quadi entered modern day Slovakia. The Marcomanni followed southwards as well to the west of the Quadi. To the north-east of the tribe, Proto-Slavic people could be found. This is also the same time period in which Arminius, hero of the teutoburgerwald battle, declares war on the leader of the Marcomanni, Maroboduus. Since the Quadi was part of the Marcomanni, it is most likely that they supported Maroboduus.

The war ended with the collapse of Maroboduus' confederation. Vannius, then leader of the Quadi, forms a Quadi kingdom in the west of modern day Slovakia called Regnum Vannianum. Vannius was also allied to Rome, his Quadi kingdom served as a buffer between the Roman province of Pannonia and other Germanic tribes.

The Quadi kingdom did not exist for a long time. In 50AD, Vannius wanted to rebuild the Marcomanni confederation. The Romans viewed this as a threat to their borders so they instigated an insurrection in the area. The kingdom breaks up and Vannius dies in unknown circumstances. The Quadi now continiously pick different sides in battles between the Roman empire and Germanic tribes.

Tacitus who wrote his Germania in 98AD, mentions the Quadi: "The Narisci border on the Hermunduri, and then follow the Marcomanni and Quadi. The Marcomanni stand first in strength and renown, and their very territory, from which the Boii were driven in a former age, was won by valour. Nor are the Narisci and Quadi inferior to them. This I may call the frontier of Germany, so far as it is completed by the Danube.

The Marcomanni and Quadi have, up to our time, been ruled by kings of their own nation, descended from the noble stock of Maroboduus and Tudrus. They now submit even to foreigners but the strength and power of the monarch depend on Roman influence. He is occasionally supported by our arms, more frequently by our money, and his authority is none the less."

War broke out between the Quadi and the Romans in 137AD. Rome now decided to raise their own candidate to rule the tribe. The Quadi lost their independence to choose their own leaders. War broke out again with Rome in 172AD when the Quadi break their treaty with the Romans. The invading Romans were led by Marcus Aurelius himself. The battle that followed is depicted on the column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. The Romans eventually withdrew and the Quadi removed the Roman chosen leader from power.

The Romans, of course furious at this, returned back to the Quadi with Marcus Aurelius still leading the army. They deposed of the Quadi chosen leader, Ariogaesus, and banished him to Egypt. The former Roman chosen leader was put back in power. Emperor Marcus would spent the rest of his life on campaign against the Germanic tribes. 40,000 Roman troops were posted on Quadi and Marcomanni territories which brought regular conflict between the Quadi and Rome.

By the 3rd century AD, the Quadi joined the Suebi confederation. This was also quite a peaceful century for the Quadi, only small conflicts took place between them and the Roman empire. The Quadi experience an economic boom and Roman-styled homes were build, which probably housed pro-Roman Germanic lords.

The invading Huns caused massive chaos to all tribes in central Europe which includes the Quadi. The Quadi tribe was sadly destroyed around 375AD by the chaos and movement that followed the arrival of the Huns. Remnants of the tribe have probably joined the Alemanni, suebi, Rugii or Vandali tribes. Later in 500AD, the Bavarian confederation was formed which might have included a few descendants of the Quadi tribe.

These pictures show a depiction of a Quadi warrior and part of Marcus Aurelius' column that depicts the Quadi battle.