Li Tai: You lying, cheating, piece of shit!

Li Chengqian: Oh yeah? You’re the idiot who thinks you can get away with everything you do. WELCOME TO THE REAL WORLD

Li Tai: I’m leaving you, and I’M TAKING LI SHIMIN WITH ME

Empress Zhangsun, picking up the game board: I think we’re gonna stop playing now.

A few people have asked me for the recs that come with my historical romance archetype quiz in full, and since it's been around a week and I've been procrastinating.... Here they are, in order of popularity (check your triggers, as always):

The Good Guy (by far the winning result... which saddens me a little as a reader but I respect your life and your choices):

Unclaimed by Courtney Milan--virgin hero, sex worker heroine, he's a genuinely lovely man

Scandal in Spring by Lisa Kleypas--a lot of people like Matthew Swift, I like Matthew Swift, there's a very good scene where she hides a key in her bodice and is like COME FIND IT

My Fake Rake by Eva Leigh--gender-flipped She's All That retelling with a nerdy hero who fake dates his equally nerdy friend while being super in love with her

Unmasked by the Marquess by Cat Sebastian--this blurs into a rake vibe, but the hero is a disaster bi who falls in love with his new best friend, only to find out that said best friend is not a man but in fact AFAB and NB; there is a delightful scene in which he watches them from across a ballroom while they pull their glove off with their teeth that lives rent-free in my head

Gentleman in the Streets, Freak in the Sheets:

The Duke Gets Even by Joanna Shupe--THEEEEEE PRIME EXAMPLE, "I'm going to cover you in bite marks, darling" Duke of Lockwood I'm your biggest fan

The Duke Who Knew Too Much by Grace Callaway--the one where the duke is like "oh my god girl I didn't murder anyone I'm just into tying people up consensually"

Waking Up with the Duke by Lorraine Heath--the one where the hero's cousin asks the hero to knock up the cousin's wife and the hero is like "I mean because you asked nicely"; SUPREME angst

The Earl I Ruined by Scarlett Peckham--uptight earl is slandered by the heroine who insinuates that he likes submitting in the bedroom; incorrect, he actually wants to tie her tf up

The Truth About Cads and Dukes by Elisa Braden--marriage of convenience with the world's most uptight duke and a heroine who thinks he finds her plain and fat and gross when in fact he mostly just spends his time restraining himself from doing nasty things to her

Villain Recs:

Devil in Winter by Lisa Kleypas--because you gotta, though St. Vincent is a softer touch villain than some ("he wouldn't have actually... done it... riiiight?")

Duke of Sin by Elizabeth Hoyt--a kidnapping loony tunes hero who blackmails everyone, stabs freely, and calls the heroine the wrong name for like 70% of the book; he also stabs someone while completely naked except for his pink robe

The Dragon and the Pearl by Jeannie Lin--Tang Dynasty evil warlord hero kidnaps heroine to use her for information, then realizes he's falling in love

Shadowheart by Laura Kinsale--medieval assassin hero forces the heroine into marriage for his evil plot, makes her his apprentice in evil, then realizes he SUUUUPER likes it when she doms him

The Prince of Broadway by Joanna Shupe--hero owns a casino and becomes the rebellious heroine's mentor, but is secretly plotting to destroy her father

Daring and the Duke by Sarah MacLean--hero was the villain of two previous books and maybe tried to kill the heroine when they were kids, either way she's super mad about it but oops he's OBSESSED with her

Tortured Hero Recs:

My Darling Duke by Stacy Reid--hero has had to use a wheelchair due to mobility issues after an accident, becomes very reclusive and angsty, until he finds out the heroine has been pretending to be engaged to him...

Dreaming of You by Lisa Kleypas--Derek Craven was born in a drainpipe, named himself, and essentially was a sex worker until he made his way up in the world, now feels completely not good enough for the intrepid novelist who's stolen his heart

A Lady for a Duke by Alexis Hall--hero has survivor's guilt and chronic pain + a laudanum addiction after surviving the Battle of Waterloo when his best friend died... twist is that his best friend faked her death so that she could transition and live as who she really is, and now they met up again for the first time in years without him realizing it's her

Pippa and the Prince of Secrets by Grace Callaway--scarred hero reunites with his childhood sweetheart, who's now widowed and way above him in social station... but she's also tortured, and they come to find solace in each other (also: her old husband told her that pursuing her desires was wicked; hero DISAGREES)

Duke of Midnight by Elizabeth Hoyt--literally Georgian Batman, he is the night, also he has a home gym

The Duke I Tempted by Scarlett Peckham--super tortured duke who hides his masochistic tendencies from the world enters into a marriage of convenience with a woman he believes will reject him if she realizes what he wants

A Rogue by Any Other Name by Sarah MacLean--local man who lost his inheritance and land in a game of dice shows up again after years and forces his childhood friend to marry him so that he can reclaim WHAT IS HIS!!! (both the estate and her)

Rake Recs:

Nine Rules to Break When Romancing a Rake by Sarah MacLean--prototypical rake book, Ralston is all "my God woman, binding your breasts is a crime and I am here to save them"

The Duke and the Lady in Red by Lorraine Heath--this guy's mom literally shows up at his house and is like "please tell me you've cleaned this place since the last orgy"; he then gets taken in by a con woman and learns how to love

The Lady Gets Lucky by Joanna Shupe--hero's not taken seriously by anyone because he's such a playboy; he makes a deal to teach the shy heroine sex stuff in exchange for recipes so he can start a SUPPER CLUB and prove himself as a Srs Person

A Rake's Guide to Seduction by Caroline Linden--hero is a ne'er do well rake who realizes he's fallen for his best friend's little sister right when she's proposed to by another man; years later they meet up when she's a depressed widow, and he brings her to life if you know what I mean

Indigo by Beverly Jenkins--hero is a VERRRRRYYYYY smooth rake who also helps free enslaved people in the Underground Railroad, gets the shit beaten out of of him and ends up being cared for by the quiet and practical heroine; and he's like "HOLY SHIT SHE'S THE ONE"

Scot Recs:

When A Scot Ties the Knot by Tessa Dare--heroine makes a Big Mistake and ends up having to marry the gruff hero, but it's only a handfasting so as long they don't consummate the marriage it won't be legit--SIMPLE ENOUGH

When a Girl Loves an Earl by Elisa Braden--heroine becomes obsessed with local giant man, doesn't even realize he's Scottish until she's trapped him in marriage and he drops the English accent and it is a RIIIIIDE for her from there

The Taming of a Highlander by Elisa Braden--heroine ends up having to marry physically and emotionally scarred hero in order to avoid testifying against him, he's all "YE WON'T BE ABLE TO TAKE ME LASS" and she's like "oh bet"

The Highland Guard series by Monica McCarty--medieval Scottish books "what if Robert the Bruce made a Suicide Squad and they were all hot"

The Madness of Lord Ian MacKenzie by Jennifer Ashley--widow heroine ends up in a FWB situation with the hero, who is on the spectrum and considered "mad" by many; then shit gets complicated

When a Girl Loves an Earl by Stacy Reid--heroine gets pregnant by another man and runs to Scotland to marry this guy she's been writing platonic letters to; he agrees to claim her baby; hero is mute and they communicate through written notes at first, but the heroine learns sign language to make it easier for him, super emotional

The Psychology of Qi Rong (TW for cannibalism and mental health)

This is a review of Qi Rong's behaviour and symptoms in relation to this authors note. According to MXTX, if put into a modern day context, Qi Rong would be said to have bipolar disorder. In order to verify this statement, this post is dedicated to comparing actual symptoms of bipolar disorder and Qi Rong's behaviour from the novel in order to prove this statement true.

I would like to put out a disclaimer that I am not a licensed psychology practitioner, but a student who hasn't finished his degree yet. I am simply writing this because this authors note wouldn't leave my brain. Please don't expect total accuracy from this post, though I will try my best to ensure that there is no error on my part

I would also like everyone to note that the term bipolar itself, is used to describe a spectrum of disorders, and that simply regulating it to one term would be incorrect, and that treatment can vary depending on the disorder

Bipolar Disorder: History, Symptoms and Probable Causes

Bipolar disorder is characterized by chronically occurring episodes of mania or hypomania alternating with depression and is often misdiagnosed initially. Treatment involves pharmacotherapy and psychosocial interventions, but mood relapse and incomplete response occur, particularly with depression.

(I want everyone to m

The first recorded case of Bipolar Disorder as an illness was by Pierre Farlet in the mid-19th Century (1851-1854), who called it “folie circulaire” (circular madness). It was defined by manic and melancholic episodes separated by symptom-free intervals.

In 1854 Baillarger used the term "folie à double forme" to describe cyclic (manic–melancholic) episodes (Pichot 1995; Ritti 1879).

There also seems to be a mention of bipolar disorder (Unsure of this, take with a bit of salt) in the book Eight Treatesies on the Nurturing of Life by Gao Lian (Different character from the Lian in Xie Lian); dating back to the Ming Dynasty (1591 {first publication()} [requires fact checking])

(Note: Records of treatment of mental disorders in Ancient China go all the way back to the Tang Dynasty. If you check wikipedia, there is the claim that it goes back to 1100 BCE, which I can't confirm [requires fact checking])

Criteria to be met before diagnosing someone with Bipolar I Disorder according to the DSM-5 are at least one manic episode. This may be preceded by and may be followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes and the occurrence of the manic and major depressive episode(s) is not better explained by schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or other specified or unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorder

Manic episodes are characterised increased talkativeness, rapid speech, a decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, distractibility, increase in goal-directed activity, and psychomotor agitation. Some other hallmarks of mania are an elevated or expansive mood, mood lability, impulsivity, irritability, and grandiosity (Can be remembered using the DIGFAST mnemonic)

Rapid cycling in bipolar disorder is defined as having at least 4 or more mood episodes in a 12-month period. These mood episodes may be manic, hypomanic, or depressive but must meet their full diagnostic and duration criteria. These episodes must be separated by periods of partial or full remission of at least 2 months or be separated by a switch to an episode of opposite polarities, such as mania or hypomania to major depressive episodes (Note: Switching from mania to hypomania or vice-versa would not qualify because they are not opposite polarity). Rapid cycling bipolar disorder patients have been found to be more resistant to pharmacotherapy.

Hypomania and mania can be distinguished by a certain feature- hypomania does not cause major deficits in social and occupational functioning. The duration of a manic episode is at least a week, while a hypomanic episode is about four days

Symptoms of a depressive episode include feeling very down/sad/anxious, slowed down or restless, trouble falling asleep, waking up too early, or sleeping too much, talking very slowly, feeling unable to find anything to say, or forgetting a lot, trouble concentrating or making decisions, unable to do even simple things, lack of interest in almost all activities, and feeling hopeless/worthless, or thinking about death or suicide

(Note: According to the DSM-5, major depressive and hypomanic episodes are common in bipolar I disorder but are not required for the diagnosis)

Bipolar II Disorder is defined by a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes. The hypomanic episodes are less severe than the manic episodes in bipolar I disorder

And finally, cyclothymic disorder/cyclothymia is defined by recurring hypomanic and depressive symptoms that are not intense enough or do not last long enough to qualify as hypomanic or depressive episodes

Like in the case of most mental disorders, there is no known cause for disorders on the bipolar spectrum, however the most widelt agreed upon risk factors are brain structure and functioning (some studies show that the brains of people with bipolar disorder differ in certain ways from the brains of people who do not have bipolar disorder or any other mental disorder), and genetics (some research suggests that people with certain genes are more likely to develop bipolar disorder. Research also shows that people who have a parent or sibling with bipolar disorder have an increased chance of having the disorder themselves).

In relation to genetics, many genes are involved, and no one gene causes the disorder (Which, if the authors note is true, we can assume that one of his parents carried the genes for it, most probably his father).

青鬼戚容

Qi Rong needs no introduction or abstract (Because I don't have to submit this to a prof hehehe) to start with. He is iconic, and rightfully so. In order to try and analyse Qi Rong's behaviour, let us take a glance at his introductory (In this case, first physical) appearance.

In his first (physical) appearance Qi Rong talks shit about others, which isn't really notable in regards to this topic. Its like my Mother after the guests leave and she's finished playing social politics. Its nothing interesting, just the typical criteria for the average aunty.

But you know what is interesting? His lair.

He has a throne, a banquet hall style dining set up. The only things he needs is the cauldron to cook (human) meat. I don't remember any of his subordinates needing to eat, and considering all of the salted carrion he has hanging around; not to mention the fresh meat stores he keeps (Three hundred humans...three hundred), he doesn’t eat a good chunk of the humans brought to him immediately. Its all unnecessarily grandiose for a single person, (We know that he doesn’t invite any dinner guests over. If he did, they'd be the main course)

If you notice Qi Rongs behaviour a majority of the time fits the criteria for a manic episode. Its also probably why his schemes seem to fail most of the time. Note that there has to be a remission period of two months in the case of rapid cycling (Which I belive occurs in Qi Rongs case), so MXTX is right, in a way. Qi Rong would be diagnosed with a disorder on the bipolar spectrum, more specifically Bipolar I Disorder

(One may also assume that he had cyclothymia during his days as a prince, but I believe that its just a showcase of certain symptoms of Bipolar I Disorder from a young age. He always had it, but it didnt manifest much more visibly until later on in his life)

Now Lets Talk About Kuru

Kuru is an infectious, acquired, non-immunogenic, fatal neurodegenerative prion disease. It progresses rapidly with cerebellar and extrapyramidal signs and symptoms, with death occurring within one to two years of onset of symptoms. What causes Kuru? Cannibalism, or more specifically the consumption of the brain tissue.

The diesease originated and was confined to the Fore Tribe in the Eastern Highlands of Paupa New Guinea, where ritualistic cannibalism was practiced. Kuru is now extinct due to the outlawing of ritualistic cannibalism in the region.

(Note: There is a theory that cannibalism occurred due to famine, and that it was ratonalised by the Europeans who arrived their as a ritualistic practice. Colonisers have also used the excuse of cannibalism to colonise and kill indigenous populations)

What causes cannibalism? Usually, the two most predominantly ascribed motivations are hunger and hatred, and the occasional belief that eating human flesh is medicinal.

(This is a bit of a personal note from me, but from what I've heard, human flesh is not good for any living creatures health. In my hometown there are plenty of stories about animals going mad or dying after eating human flesh)

A point I want to make is that we do not know how Qi Rong died. Did he die from being eaten alive? Or did he pass from a neurodegenerative disease caused by consuming human flesh in order to survive? If its the latter, it could explain his behaviour.

Kuru is also known as the laughing disease, as patients exhibited sporadic uncontrollable laughter, due to being emotionally labile. Perhaps Qi Rong passed before the disease could reach the sedentary phase? Maybe he was killed before that. Symptoms of Kuru can take time to manifest completely, so I feel that this theory should not be discounted.

Reference(s)

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559103/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3188776/

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/bipolar-disorder

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493168/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519712/table/ch3.t8/

https://web.archive.org/web/20070928103521/http://www.nmh.gov.tw/nmh_web/english_version/exhibition/exhibition_s0703.cfm

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2813703/

A note of gratitude for @toowolfdelusion for posting that authors note, otherwise this brainfart of mine would not exist

Identifying the Legendary Spirits

From the Kayla X "Legendary Spirits" blind box figure collection:

This figure's name is "Blizzard".

She's the rare of the set, so I don't own her. But she's an obvious one! Clearly she's a Yuki onna, a Japanese yokai.

OR IS SHE

Unbeknownst to me, the idiot trying to figure out who all these figures are on my own, and naively believing the product description that claimed these spirits come from "all over the world" - there is actual documentation on who each and every one of them is, and surprise! they're all Chinese.

A few days ago while doing more research into this set, I found a 'Kikagoods Collections' youtube channel, and a video where a pair of hands and an AI voice open the full set of these Legendary Spirits, and there, in the pinned comment - a link to three blog posts on Kikagoods.com

Did you know Kikagoods has a blog section? Because I didn't! Do you know how many of these eight figures I identified correctly? Four! Well, three. Well, two and two halves.

First, the unambiguously correct.

'Forgotten', with her conspicuous bowl of soup, lantern walking stick, and spider lilies in her hair, is indeed the Chinese goddess Meng Po, who stands at Naihe bridge in the afterlife, giving her soup to the dead to drink so they forget their past life and can be reincarnated.

'Bleeding', with her red bridal gown and veil, dowry box, and rakshasa bird companions, is in fact the rakshasa who disguised herself as a bride and blinded a bride and groom on their wedding night, before escaping into the night.

Secondly, the half correct.

'Painted' is not the yokai ungaikyo, because yokai are in fact, not Chinese. But I did mention in that post the Chinese folktale of the Painted Skin, the demon who wore the painted skin suit of a beautiful woman in order to get close to a man and enter his home, ultimately being defeated by a Taoist priest. This is the true identity of Painted, who is using a bronze mirror to put the finishing touches on her lovely painted skin, and the wound on the back of her head is the seam of her suit. So I knew the inspiration, but didn't identify her correctly.

'Fatality' is indeed a nine-tailed fox spirit, but her inspiration was a little more specific. I did find the story that inspired her, but I didn't mention it in the post, so I'll only count myself as being half right about her. She is specifically the nine-tailed fox who possessed the concubine Su Daji of King Zhou of Shang, the last king of the Shang Dynasty. The fox spirit who possessed Daji was instrumental in the story of Zhou's tyrannical reign and eventual deposing, this story being notably adapted into the 16th century Ming Dynasty novel Fengshen Yanyi.

Thirdly, the incorrect.

'Mirage', the pearl-holding, weeping mermaid figure, is not a generic representation of mermaid's tears. She is in fact a Chinese mermaid, or jiaoren, who fell in love with a Buddhist monk, Bai Gongzi, though they ultimately could not be together because of the fundamental differences between them. The jiaoren's tears become pearls. This story is from a collection of folktales, Soushen Ji. Without the clue that all of these spirits are Chinese, there was no real chance for me to find this specifically, as I can't even find a full version of it online, just summaries.

'Withered' is playing a pipa like I thought, but she was the only one I fully gave up on finding. Turns out she is based on Yang Yuhuan, or Yang Guifei, or Consort Yang, the favorite concubine of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, and one of the 'four beauties of ancient China'. Despite being loved by the Emperor, during an insurrection which forced him to flee from his palace, Yang was used as a scapegoat for the rebellion, and was forced to commit suicide at age 37. Her story was a partial inspiration for the Tale of Genji! I'm so glad to finally know who she is.

'Revenge' cannot be an onryo as I stated because, again, onryo are Japanese. She is in fact the White Bone Demon from Journey to the West! Like so many demons in that story she wants to make Tripitaka into a snack, so she disguises herself as a young girl, then an old woman, then an old man to try to get close, but gets killed by Sun Wukong each time, though this results in his temporary banishment from the group because the disguises were very good and it looked like the Monkey King kept killing random people just coming up for a chat. I've been meaning to get around to reading my copy of Journey to the West for ages, though I'm at least somewhat familiar with the highlights from some of Overly Sarcastic Productions videos on it, as well as some reading in college. I'm very pleased to know her identity, it makes me like her even more!

'Requite' is in fact a cat spirit, good job to me for figuring that out. She's not a thief of any kind, which I was hung up on, and she's not just a generic cat demon either. She is specifically a reference to one moment from the amazing history of the rise of Emperor Wu Zetian, the only female emperor of China. When Wu Zetian got the former Empress as well as the Emperor's previous favorite concubine demoted, then executed, the once-favored Consort Xiao Shufei cursed her before her death, declaring that she would be reborn as a cat, and Wu Zetian as a mouse, and Xiao would scratch her to death. If you're not familiar with her, Xiran Jay Zhao has two incredible videos on Wu Zetian's life and rise to the position of Emperor which I highly recommend.

And that's everyone...isn't it?

Lastly, the one they forgot.

'Blizzard' is not covered by those three blog posts. But with some new confidence from all this new information and some more googling, I believe I have her. Not a yuki onna, not Japanese, but instead I believe this figure to be the Chinese goddess of snow, Tengliu. She's a pretty obscure goddess, with some places calling her the wife of the wind god Fengbo, and that the snowflake is a symbol of hers. That would explain the jade snowflake on Blizzard's belt!

Aaaand that's it! All eight (nine) of the Legendary Spirits figures identified. I wanted to do all this for me, but if you're a fan of these figures and wanted to know who they are, I hope this was helpful for you too.

Sources below the cut:

I APOLOGISE TO ANYONE WHO SAW MY SILLY INCORRECT TANG DYNASTY POST. THAT WAS FOR MY FUN BLOG @incorrectmedievalchina. THIS IS MY SERIOUS BLOG.

The Great Learning - by Confucius (Highlights)

What The Great Learning teaches is to manifest bright virtue, to renovate the people, and to rest in the highest excellence.

The ancients who wished to manifest their bright virtue throughout the kingdom, first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things.

Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their states were rightly governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy.

From the ruler down to the common people, all must consider self-cultivation the root of everything. It cannot be, when the root is neglected, that what should spring from it will be well ordered.

Commentary of Master Zeng

On the bathing tub of King Tang [sage-king founder of the Shang Dynasty], the following words were engraved: “If you can one day renovate yourself, do so every day. Yea, let there be daily renovation.”

In the Book of Poetry, it is said: “How sublime was King Wen! [Sage-king whose son, King Wu, founded the Zhou Dynasty]. With a bright feeling of reverence he regarded his resting places.” As a ruler, he rested in benevolence. As a minister, he rested in reverence. As a son, he rested in filial piety. As a father, he rested in kindness. In dealing with his subjects, he rested in good faith.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said: “Look at the bend in the Qi River, with the green bamboos so luxuriant! Here is our refined prince, who is like a gem cut and filed, carved and polished. How serious and dignified he is! How majestic and distinguished! Our illustrious prince will never be forgotten.” The expression “like a gem cut and filed” refers to the work of learning. “Carved and polished” refers to self-cultivation. “How serious and dignified” indicates the feeling of cautious reverence. “How majestic and distinguished” indicates an awe-inspiring deportment. “Our illustrious prince will never be forgotten” indicates that, because his virtue reached excellence, the people cannot forget him.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said: “Ah, the former kings are not forgotten!” Future princes deem worthy what they deemed worthy, and love what they loved. The common people delight in what delighted them, and are benefited by their arrangements. It is on this account that the former kings, after they have left the world, are not forgotten.

The Master [Confucius] said: “In hearing litigations, I am just like anyone else. What is necessary is to cause the people to have no litigations”.

What is meant by “making the thoughts sincere” is… the superior person must be watchful over himself when he is alone.

Riches adorn the house, and virtue adorns the person.

If a person is under the influence of passion, he will be incorrect in his conduct. He will be the same, if he is under the influence of terror, or under the influence of fond regard, or under that of sorrow and distress.

What is meant by “In order to rightly govern the state, it is necessary first to regulate the family” is this: It is not possible for one to teach others if he cannot teach his own family. Therefore the ruler perfects the education of the country without leaving his own home. Filial piety is the means by which you serve your ruler. Fraternal submission is the means by which you serve your elders. Compassion is the means by which you deal with everyone.

From the loving example of one family, a whole state becomes loving; and from its courtesies, the whole state becomes courteous. While, from the ambition and perverseness of a single person, the whole state may be led to disorder. Such is the nature of influence. This verifies the saying: “Affairs may be ruined by a single sentence; a kingdom may be settled by a single man.” Yao and Shun [ancient sage-kings] led the kingdom with benevolence, and the people followed them. Chieh and Chau led the kingdom with violence, and the people followed them. On this account, the ruler must himself be possessed of the good qualities, and then he may require them in the people. He must not have the bad qualities in himself, and then he may require that they shall not be in the people.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said: “The peach tree is so ripe, its leaves so luxuriant. This girl is going to her husband's house and she will rightly order her household." Let the household be rightly ordered, and then the people of the state may be taught.

In the Book of Poetry, it is said: “In his deportment, there is nothing wrong. He rectifies the people of the state.” Yes; when the ruler is a model of a father, a son, and a brother, then the people imitate him. Thus, it is said: “The government of the kingdom depends on the regulation of the family.”

When the sovereign treats his elders with respect, and shows compassion towards the young and helpless, the people do the same. Thus the ruler has a principle with which, as with a measuring square, he regulates his conduct. What a man dislikes in his superiors, let him not display in the treatment of his subordinates; what he dislikes in his subordinates, let him not display in the service of his superiors. This is called “the principle with which, as with a measuring square, to regulate one's conduct.”

Virtue is the root; wealth is the result. If the ruler makes wealth his primary goal, he will only struggle with his people and teach them theft. In the Book of Chu, it is said: “The state of Chu does not consider that [wealth] to be valuable. It values, instead, its good people.” Uncle Fan [the uncle of Duke Wan who was exiled] said: “Our exiled prince does not account that [wealth] to be precious. What he considers precious is the affection of his parents.”

In the Declaration of the Duke of Qin, it is said: “Let me have but one minister, plain and sincere, with a simple, upright, mind; and possessed of generosity, regarding the talents of others as though he himself possessed them, and, when he finds accomplished and perspicacious men, showing himself able to bear them and employ them. Such a minister will be able to preserve my people.

But if his character, when he finds people of ability, is to be jealous and hate them; and, when he finds accomplished and perspicacious men, he opposes them and does not allow their advancement, showing himself really not able to bear them; such a minister will not be able to protect my people. Isn’t he dangerous to the state?”

To see worthy people and not be able to raise them to office; to raise them to office, but not to do so quickly, this is disrespectful. To see bad people and not remove them; to remove them, but not completely, this is a fatal mistake.

Never has there been a case of the sovereign loving benevolence, and the people not loving righteousness. Never has there been a case where the people loved righteousness, and the affairs of the sovereign have not been carried to completion.

In a state, financial gain is not to be considered prosperity, but its prosperity is found in righteousness.

When he who presides over a state or a family makes his revenues his main business, he must be under the influence of some small, mean person. He may consider this person to be “good”; but if this person is employed in the administration of a state or family, all sorts of calamities will befall together, and though someone good takes his place, he will not be able to fix the evil. This illustrates again the saying: “In a state, financial gain is not to be considered prosperity, but its prosperity is found in righteousness.”

Incorrect MRIAD quotes

I’ve been binging on these incorrect quotes, recently. There has to be some out there to fit in MRIAD universe, as well. 

Lu Yao: I wasn't that drunk last night.

Bai Youning: You kept flirting with Chusheng-ge.

Lu Yao: Yeah, so? He's my husband.

Bai Youning: You asked him if he was single.

Bai Youning: Then you started crying when he told you he wasn't.

Yellow as the Emperor’s Color

In China, the yellow color has long been associated with the Center - one of the five directions, along with the four cardinal points. Yellow started to be perceived as the Emperor’s color during the Tang era (618-907), but not any yellow - just one particular hue: 赤黄, literally "reddish-yellow". This rich and vibrant color was associated with the sun, and the sun was the symbol of the Emperor.

Initially, under the Tang, “reddish-yellow” was not forbidden for ordinary people to wear, and was not set by law as the Emperor’s color: wearing it was just the personal preference of some emperors. Then, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, “reddish-yellow” was forbidden to be worn by commoners. In the Tianbao era (the second half of the reign of Emperor Xuanzong), the Emperor's bedding, formerly purple, was replaced with “reddish-yellow”, and the officials were forbidden to wear this color. It’s can be said that in China the perception of yellow as the Emperor’s color began from that time on.

However, figurines and frescoes from the Tang era show that yellow was still very popular among people of the Tang empire.

Also, during the Tang era, yellow, together with white, was one of the colors assigned by law to the lowest-level officials, soldiers, commoners and the like. Most yellow dyes are cheap, easy to produce and easy to apply to fabric, so in general yellow was considered a commoners' color.

The Emperor’s yellow ("reddish-yellow") vs the commoners’ yellow (from The Longest Day in Chang’an):

The color of the Emperor's ceremonial dress under the Tang was not “reddish-yellow” - it was, in accordance with the ancient custom, deep black, combined with scarlet. This type of garment, worn exclusively by emperors, kings and princes, is called mianfu.

Tang Emperor in mianfu with his retinue, a mural from the Dunhuang caves:

Only in the Ming era (1368-1644) another variant of yellow - ocher 赭黄 - became the official color of the Emperor’s “official" dress, and both officials and commoners were forbidden to wear any shade of yellow:

The ceremonial dress mianfu retained the ancient black-and-red palette and was still basically the same as during the Tang, with some minor changes:

Under the Manchurian Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), ocher in the Emperor’s costume was replaced by a lighter and brighter hue - 明黃 “bright yellow”. The Manchu emperors didn’t wear the ancient black-and-red garment of the Han emperors. 

Now this particular hue is still the one most strongly associated with the Emperor. In many dramas and movies, emperors of the pre-Qing dynasties wear “bright yellow”, however, this is historically incorrect.

I’d like to add that the fact that some color was considered the Emperor's color didn’t mean that the Emperor was obliged to wear only it. While the Emperor’s ceremonial and official garments strictly followed the color regulations, in their daily life emperors were free to wear any color they liked.

Maybe this Laoniang is just too lao

(I know, that's probably incorrect grammatically.)

I've been watching a few Chinese RomCom Dramas lately and realizing why I don't care for them despite the lavish costuming and attractive characters and intriguing plots.

It's the insistence that the love interest has to be a damned fool completely incapable of reading the situation and thinking before they insert their foot in their mouth.

Generally this is the main female character and love interest, but Tang Fan of Sleuth of the Ming Dynasty seems hit by it too.

Example: In The General's Lady, the main character winds up abandoned on the way to her marriage to the terrifying demon general. Rightfully pissed off, she rushes to the border town he's in charge of, breaks into the general's home and - not realizing the gorgeous man confronting her is her husband - proceeds to make stupid comments about how ugly the general is and how terrifying.

She continues to be this sort of stupid over the course of the few episodes I have watched, completely oblivious to the situation or understanding that she's suspected of being a spy. Only her 'magical' ability to open any lock gets her out of trouble.

I'm sure that sort of character is incredibly popular. But boy what I wouldn't give to have MDZS's A-Qing tossed into a situation like that. Because she'd figure things out a whole lot faster and not act like stereotypical teenager on hormones.

Am I going to have to write this? I'm going to have to write this.

On Faith or Belief-Juniper Publishers

Introduction

At the celebration of the 40th anniversary of China’s reform and opening in December 18, 2018, President Xi Jinping said, “Faith, conviction, and confidence are vital at all times. Small to one person, one collective, big to a political party, a nation, a country, as long as there is faith, conviction, confidence, it will become more and more courageous and brave, otherwise it will be defeated and self-destructed” [1]. But when I asked the graduate students who came to me for an interview the question what your faith or belief is, most people usually answered me that “I don’t have a faith”. Faith and conviction are the contents taught in the philosophy curriculum. From this phenomenon, at least two problems can be revealed. First, the philosophy taught at school and university was not accepted by them and did not become their faith or belief. Second, they might think that philosophy is useless, so they had not tried to find another philosophy for them to believe in. For them, they may believe that only scientific and technical knowledge and the ability to solve practical problems are important. Philosophy is useless. Whether having a faith or not does not matter. As far as my personal experience of scientific research and daily life for more than 30 years is concerned, this view is incorrect. The power that a faith brings to me is enormous. Therefore, in this paper I would like to present my views on various issues related to faith or belief.

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The Functions of Faith/Belief

According to textual research, the two Chinese characters as a Chinese word first appeared in the Buddhist translation of the “Mahavaipulya Buddhavataṃsaka Sutra” translated by Siksananda at The Tang Dynasty [2]. All the immortals are superior, people and others have similar beliefs. If it is difficult to practice asceticism, the Bodhisattva should be able to. In Buddhism, faith was focused on the Triple Gem, that is, Gautama Buddha, his teaching (the Dhamma), and the community of spiritually developed followers, or the monastic community seeking enlightenment (the Sangha). Later, the meaning of the word “faith or belief” changed slightly and could be used to express respect for a certain philosophy, religion, someone, something, and to the beliefs of heaven and earth, God, gods and ancestors. Therefore, the Chinese word faith or belief has a history of at least 1300 years of use. For this Chinese word, we can also understand the two characters like this: trust in self or others is a way of life, and “admire others” is a pursuit of life. The English word “Faith”, derived from Latin fides and old French feid, is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or concept. In the context of religion, one can define faith as confidence or trust in a system of religious belief. Religious people often think of faith as confidence based on a perceived degree of warrant, while others who are more skeptical of religion tend to think of faith as simply belief without evidence [3]. From this author’s point of view, people can only believe in something that he/she cannot falsify it although the ability to falsify a statement is different for different people or even different at different time for the same person. It is hard to judge that someone believes in something without evidence. Therefore, in this paper faith and belief are used interchangeably.

Faith is the subjective product of the mind and the individual’s conscious behavior [3], but the education from the family and society has a major impact on the individual’s beliefs. Joining an organization (such as a religion community, a political party, and other organizations) is not only a sign of personal belief, but it also has the potential to influence the substantive content of personal beliefs. However, some people may join a certain organization for personal gain. They do not care about the pursuit of the organization. This belief is a false belief, and it will disappear with the disintegration of the organization. Human beliefs include primitive beliefs, religious beliefs, philosophical beliefs, etc. Faith is a spiritual sustenance, which has three effects on individuals:

a) Faith not only gives morality of the self-discipline nature and meaning, but also the coordinates of people’s spiritual pillars and moral choices.

b) Faith can not only improve people’s moral realm, but also shape people’s moral personality

c) Faith is not only the driving force of moral behavior, but also the “pointing light” on the road of life.

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How to Select a Faith

In fact, everyone has faith

As we know, trusting in self or others is a way of life and this trust is just the faith. Since everyone must live, everyone has faith which is the same as he has his own body. Saying that he has no faith, just like saying that he has no body, is inaccurate. People face choices every day in their lives. Should I do or not do something, even if I choose to do it, what attitude should I do it? These questions are about values, outlook on life, and worldview, all of which are answered in the belief system. Beliefs are all about ethical standards. Different beliefs represent that they accept different levels of social ethics. At present, the content of faith in the society is varied widely [3]. Harmony between man and nature, God’s faith, Buddha’s faith, scientific belief, obsession and worship of power, status, money, reputation, beauty, etc., “timely fun”, “do one day monk knocking one day”, “Muddle along” are all different kinds of beliefs.

Believe in yourself or others

Life is like walking, and you will continue to encounter intersections. At this point, you will face the choice of left, right or straight ahead. How to choose depends on how clear your destination is. If you do not have faith, you do not know the final goal of your life. There are two ways to make decisions at this point. One is to believe in their own instincts, and the other is to rely on the guidance of others. People always want to reach their destination with the least effort and the fastest speed. But since they have not walked before, how can they guarantee that they can obtain the best solution with their own instincts? Most people think that they will not harm themselves, and others may deceive them. However, many examples can be found around us that someone made the wrong choice because of his ignorance. Because I am only the individual person, while others have many and they also include those successful persons in history. Therefore, one of my conclusions is that it is much more reliable to choose historically proven characters such as Sakyamuni (563-480 BC), Jesus (4 BC– 30 AD), Confucius (551–479 BC), Laozi (571-471 BC), Newton (25 December 1642– 20 March 1726/27), Einstein (14 March 1879– 18 April 1955), etc. than to choose himself because they have already succeeded. Choosing the majority of people around you does not seem to be risky at the first sight, but it also determines that you can only be an ordinary person and cannot reach the high level of life since they are not historically proven to be successful persons.

How to choose a credible person

Is his life what I want?

It is said in “The Mahayana is away from the text of the Puguang Ming Scriptures”, “No beings love pain, and all their desires are happiness” [4]. But in real life, we will see that most people still live in pain and upset, and often see news such as “Someone suddenly commits suicide” and “a major killing occurred somewhere”. All these suicides or murderers must have reached the point of his pain before making such a choice. Why do they have problems and cannot find a better solution? I think an important reason is that they do not believe in others, and they cannot provide better solutions for themselves. Therefore, choosing a person as your own belief object may avoid such problems. How to choose is obviously determined by personal values, outlook on life and worldview. These are the categories of philosophy [5].

There is no absolute good or bad philosophy. There is no way to prove the truth by scientific means. Therefore, there is no standard answer, and ultimately it is the choice of belief or not. But here, I want to propose a new simple selection criterion. “The philosopher is the best practitioner of his own philosophy. Is his life that I am longing for? If yes, you can choose him as the object of faith, otherwise, you do not choose him”. The present author had compared the lives of the three thinkers of Sakyamuni, Confucius and Marx [6]. For him, he feels that Sakyamuni’s life is the most complete. Therefore, he chose Sakyamuni as a candidate for faith and began to study his theory in depth [7].

Does his theory stand the test of scientific standards?

The development of human civilization to modern times benefits much from the development of science. But until now, people still have no unified understanding of what is science and what is the standard of science/pseudoscience [8,9]. The present author has also made some studies on this issue [10,11].

Philosophers and scientists have attempted to provide a fully fundamental definition of science, but not very successful [12]. In fact, since the term science has never been strictly defined, many of the arguments are caused by inconsistencies in concepts. Based on the analysis on the respective problems of the six existing definitions, a recommendation was given as follows [10].

“Science is a kind of knowledge system that humans use rational thinking to reveal movement and change laws that do not contain contradictions and can reflect certain phenomena in the real world. It is one of social ideologies”.

For the standard of science/pseudoscience, it is well-known that Popper suggested that “anything that can be falsified is science, anything that cannot be falsified is pseudoscience” [13] while others suggested that “anything that allows others to perform repetitive verification is science and anything that does not allow others to perform repetitive verification is pseudoscience”. Braude analyzed in detail the reasons why the second standard is inappropriate [9]. It is believed that in the philosophical sense, no test can be repeated, and the time of the test, the environment of the test, and the mentality of the person participating in the test can all affect the test results, and these factors are not repeatable. The so-called repeatable tests refer to tests in which these factors have little effect on the experimental results.

For the first criterion, the present author put forward his view [11] that the characteristic of science is falsification. Therefore, there is no pseudo-theory that cannot be falsified scientifically. The theory has not been falsified today does not mean that it cannot be falsified in the future. Of course, there may be cases where the error in the proving method is not recognized. The theory that has been falsified today is found at some future time that the proving method is wrong rather than the theory itself. Second, the theory that has been falsified today is not appropriate to treat it as a scientific theory anymore. Therefore, it is suggested that the boundary of science/pseudoscience should be dynamic, but the standard is certain. “Any theory that is not falsified is science”. Since science cannot prove the truth, what is revealed in science is the law of the development of things rather than the truth. Treating the laws of science and even science itself as truth is a kind of faith, which itself violates the characteristics of “science can always be questioned”.

Science is by far the best falsification tool that humans can rely on, but it cannot prove the truth. That is to say, the theory that cannot pass the scientific standard test is problematic, but a theory which can pass the scientific standard test today does not mean that there will be no problem in the future. What we choose now should be the theory that has not been falsified yet. To falsify a theory is to find a counterexample that violates the basic assumptions or derive a paradox based on the basic assumptions. Based on such a criterion, the present author compared materialist philosophy with Buddhist philosophy [14-17], and argued that the Big Bang theory based on materialist philosophy has the following difficulties:

a) How are elementary particles produced? Materialistic philosophy faces the same “creator problem” as Christian philosophy [18].

b) Where does the force of elementary particle motion or particles synthesizing into a large object come from?

c) There exists logical paradox between entity particles with weight and volume and inseparable property. Yixi Pengcuo pointed out that “entity particles” can lead to ten major paradoxes about matter [19].

d) Since Einstein discovered that matter can be transformed into energy (his famous equation E=mc2), it has been proved that the inseparable entity particle hypothesis is wrong.

e) If matter can be decomposed into energy and energy cannot be eliminated or destroyed, a natural question would be “can energy be accumulated into matter?”

In response to these problems, the present author has proposed a new cosmological model based on Buddhist philosophy (BCM) [16] and believes that BCM can withstand the test of scientific standards and can eliminate all the paradoxes of the Big-Bang Cosmological model [17].

Any scientific theory contains three elements: (1) basic assumptions (axioms); (2) theorems; (3) phenomena. The theorems can be derived from the logical deduction from the axioms or from the logical induction from the natural phenomena. Based on theorems, people can explain the phenomenon that has occurred or predict the phenomena that may occur in the future.

If the basic assumptions are based on unfalsifiable statements, the philosophical foundation of the theory is consolidated. Adopting such assumptions is the same as how to deal with the philosophical “singularity”. The concept of a singularity comes from mathematics. “There is a point in the universe, in which the treatment itself fails.” This is an example of what mathematicians call singularity [20]. According to the current scientifically popular Big Bang theory, the whole Universe came from a singularity. BCM does not adopt this assumption.

The philosophers have an uncontrollable desire to seek an “absoluteness”. This absoluteness is unconditional to any precondition or condition of any other thing, but also a precondition and condition for all things and itself. It is also the first cause, the self-cause and the ultimate cause. Whether we call it absolute, existence itself, entity, self-cause, first cause, pure consciousness, absolute spirit, transcendental self, or life impulse, free will, ontology, object self, pure experience, “thing itself”, God, or anything else, the premise of pursuing the ultimate “no precondition” of the “foothold” and “starting point” is the same thing with different names. The last thing, we can also call it a philosophical “singularity” [21], at which point the theory itself is virtually ineffective. The reason why there is no such a metaphysical theory is that people always try to maintain the validity of the theory itself at the singularity, which is precisely the contradiction with the singularity. It may be the root of all scientific paradoxes [22].

For modern science, there are still many problems that are not recognized, such as whether the Universe is finite or infinite, whether the Universe is running regularly or randomly. If the Universe is running regularly, are the laws governing the operation of the Universe cognizable or not? What is dark matter and dark energy? What is human consciousness? What is the essence of life, where do we come from, where do we go after death, who am I? Is there a fundamental difference between artificial intelligence and human intelligence, and will artificial intelligence surpass human intelligence? These issues have been selected as the most cuttingedge scientific issues by Science magazine in 2005 [23].

Buddhist philosophy has clearer answers to these questions. First, by distinguishing the concepts of the Universe and the world, Buddhism defines the Universe to be of infinite nature both in space and time and the world to be of finite nature both in space and time. In space, the Universe consists of an infinite number of worlds. In time, each world is cyclically operated according to the process of formation, the steady state, deterioration and explosion to emptiness. In BCM, the Big Bang is the origin of the world but not the Universe. Using this definition, the awkward question of the origin of the Universe can be avoided. Because the Universe is infinite, it is unknowable. The operation of each world is regular. This law is collectively called the law of causality and can be known. However, for large and complex world problems, because of the limited life span of human beings, there are many influencing factors that may not be recognized yet. Therefore, there will always be uncertainty. In this case, the use of probability and statistics theory can give a better forecast of statistical laws, but it does not prevent a small group of people from continuing to explore the mechanism and find out more influencing factors (hidden variables). Therefore, the dispute between Einstein and Bohr is completely reconcilable [24,25].

The range that human beings can observe, no matter how big it is, is essentially a world. The space-time scope referred to by the current big bang theory is the world we live in, and it is still in a state of expansion in space. If it is the whole Universe, there is a spatial paradox between the whole Universe and the Universe expanding. Since the world we can observe and the other worlds always have the exchange of matter, energy and information on the boundary, the world is an open system, and any theorem derived from the use of isolated or closed hypotheses is inherently of applicable range [26].

Materialism describes the essence of the world as matter of fundamental particles, and the fundamental particles are inseparable into smaller particles. This assumption cannot answer the question of how fundamental particles are produced, and there are logical paradoxes between the entity particles of weight and volume and the inseparable property. The Buddhismbased Universe model (BCM) describes the essence of the world as energy. There are two kinds of energy, material energy (as the common term of energy we used and hereafter we just call it energy) and life energy (which may correspond to the dark energy we are looking for and hereafter we will call it mind). As is well-known that energy cannot be destroyed and satisfy the law of conservation. However, mind and energy are two independent forms of basic energy types. They cannot be transformed into each other. But mind could accumulate energy into matter or decompose matter into energy. Mind itself is also a kind of life.

The combination of mind and a body can constitute our countable life. For the life we can count, mind is equivalent to the engine that drives the body’s movements, and it is also the engine that drives the various organs of the body to perceive the external world. This ability is known as consciousness. Human’s consciousness includes 8 types, they are consciousness at eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and brain, the manas consciousness, and finally the alaya consciousness. Mind is the alaya consciousness. When one is dying, the consciousness at eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and brain will be lost. The function of the seventh consciousness whose formal name is called the manas consciousness, is the bridge between the former six consciousnesses with mind. Only mind will continue to exist, and it is the source of life forces and it stores all the karmas in the previous life history. The dying process is a process of the separation of mind from the body. For the detailed theory of Buddhism, one can refer to reference [7].

The matter accumulated by mind can be classified into visible matter that can be perceived by our humans and dark matter that cannot be perceived at present. Obviously, the boundary between visible and dark matter is also dynamic. As our ability of perceiving the matter (including the self-perception ability obtained through meditation and the external perception ability obtained through the development of advanced instruments) improves, more dark matter becomes visible matter. The body of a life also has two categories of matter and dark matter. The former is like humans and animals, and the latter is like Heaven, Asura, Ghost, Hell. The highest speed at which matter, and energy can be transmitted is the speed of light, and the speed at which mind can be transmitted through the entanglement mechanism can exceed the speed of light. Inanimate matter has a local limitation, that is, various characteristics gradually decay as the distance becomes longer; while mind is always global, and its related properties do not decay with increasing distance. But if mind is combined with the body, for those characteristics appeared through the body, they also have attenuation property, such as human vision and hearing.

These are the main points in the BCM model. The present author believes that BCM can pass the test of scientific standards and can overcome the various problems existed in the current Big Bang cosmological model (BBCM) and pointed out the direction for the future development of sciences [11,16,17,26].

Are there persons who are worth admiring among the believers of the theory?

For the second scientific standard test, the believer must be able to do it after he has a high level of scientific knowledge. The ordinary persons may not have this ability. In this case, there is a simpler criterion to look at history. Check that since the theory was put forward, how many people believe in this theory, and among the believers, how many people are worthy of admiration? If this philosophy has not cultivated the characters that you can admire for quite a long time, it means that this theory is not suitable for you. Maybe there are still some problems in this theory, although you do not have the ability to prove it theoretically. For example, materialist beliefs and Buddhist beliefs have a history of more than 3,000 years. Among the materialist believers, I have not found any character whose moral realm I would like to admire, and the masters of Buddhism that I admire are many, such as Sakyamuni (563-480 BC), Ashvaghosha (80-150 AD), Nagarjuna (150 - 250 AD), Xuanzang (April 6, 602-March 7, 664), Hui Neng (638-713), Xu Yun (September 5,1840-October 13,1959), Yin Guang (January 11, 1862-December 2,1940), Hong Yi (October 23, 1880-October 13,1942).

This is an important reason why I personally turned from materialist belief to Buddhist belief. When I was in college, I learned Master Hongyi and chose him as my idol of life. I began to study the life of Sakyamuni and his Buddhist philosophy by studying why Hongyi believed in Buddhism, and then used the scientific standards I learned to test Buddhism. It was found that it does not conflict with science, and in many cases, it can provide solutions to phenomena that cannot be explained by modern sciences or solve paradoxes in modern sciences. This is the complete course of the birth of BCM.

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Practice of Faith/Belief

Read the biography of the Hierarch carefully and understand his way of thinking

The general process of seeking a faith may begin with idols. First, you study the biography of idols, understand the way of thinking of idols, and then explore what the idols believe, and then study the biography of the Hierarch and the theory of philosophy or religion proposed by the Hierarch and his followers. Religion is basically a philosophy plus science and the way to learn or practice this religion. In the beginning, you can focus on the philosophical and scientific aspects to see if this philosophy and science can pass the test of scientific standards. If it fails, this philosophy and science are not what I ultimately want. If it can pass the test, I can also choose this philosophy as the basis of my faith. In-depth study of the way the Hierarch and the idols think and then use their ways of thinking to deal with all the problems you encountered in your work and life.

Seriously study this philosophical theory and understand the general method of solving problems

As we have understood that this philosophical theory is not in conflict with science, and philosophy is the foundation of science, we will further study this philosophical theory and understand the general method of this philosophy to solve problems. For example, Sakyamuni saw both the poor and the rich were living in pain and trouble, he was willing to find a way to solve all human sufferings and troubles. By learning from existing knowledge, no solution was found; by learning from other masters, it was found that their methods are not thorough to solve these problems; finally, through his own meditation, he claimed to have found a general way to solve the painful troubles. The main points of this theory can be summarized in the following four aspects:

a) All the painful troubles are not caused by others and the environment, but the way you see the world is not right (Ignorance);

b) Why is it wrong for me to see the world? Because I divide the whole world into two parts, belonging to me and not-belonging to me, and then try very hard to make the notbelonging to me to become the belonging to me. If I cannot change it, I will feel pain and upset (self-attachment);

c) Therefore, to eliminate the pain and worry, I must change my way of looking at the world. I must understand that the world is operating according to the law of causality (eliminating ignorance);

d) In order to truly eliminate the ignorance, I must eliminate self-attachment. I should expand my mind and let myself be equivalent to the world. I am the world; the world is me. Any life in the world is a cell in my body, and only if they have a good life, can I really live well. Sakyamuni has taught many different methods of practice to different people based on their actual levels. I personally think that this theory is very logical, and many people in history have practiced according to this theory, and truly achieved the degree of relief of pain and trouble. I have practiced this theory for more than 20 years and I feel that the effect is very good.

Apply the theory to your work and life

Since you believe in a philosophical theory, you can only appreciate it if you apply it to your work and life. Just like a person getting sick, he got a good medicine from a doctor. Only when he took the medicine can he see the effect. If he does not take the medicine, it would be useless for him to have a good medicine.

Since I know from Buddhism that there is no difference between putting wealth in my home and putting it in someone else’s home, I do not have to earn the extra wealth that I do not need. I only need to keep my own or my family’s need for living. Now, I can put more energy into my research. I can use my unnecessary wealth to help others. In this way, my relationship with my family and friends will be very harmonious. I will live in a happy environment. If I use this kind of thinking, I can always build a harmonious environment around me. Let me focus more on my work. I could do my job better, the more I will be paid by the society. The more I use the extra saving to help people, and the bigger is my harmonious environment.

If you understand that the essence of life is mind, the mind is not inexhaustible, the death of the body is like changing a piece of clothing, and through my good deeds, my next life is better than this life. Then I lifted my fear of death. Once someone has not been afraid of death, there is nothing else that can make him fear again if he is living on earth. As the “Heart Sutra” said, “Since there is nothing to attain, the bodhisattva who accords with the perfection of wisdom has no mental impediments. Because there are no impediments, there is nothing to fear. The departure from inverted and illusory ideas is ultimately Nirvana” [27].

In case of major problems, it is necessary to try to figure out how the Hierarch will solve this problem

The question of faith is essentially the question of believing in yourself or the Hierarch. For many things in daily life, the judgment by your instinct and the judgment of the doctrine may be the same, but for some major or complicated problems, more should be to give up your instinctive judgment and turn to the help of the Hierarch. Therefore, the first thing to do is to regard yourself as the Hierarch, to figure out what he will do when he encounters this problem. It would be much reliable to solve the problem according to such a way of thinking rather than relying solely on your own instinct to judge, because the Hierarch has become an immortal success in history with his unique way of thinking.

I feel that the Hierarch is watching me all the time and I dare not do bad things. Once I have a bad idea, I must regret it immediately

For those who have faith, a very effective way to improve your moral realm is to let yourselves live under the camera. You believe that the Hierarch is watching you all the time, so you do not dare to do bad things. And his surveillance ability is much stronger than the camera, not only he can record your words and deeds, but also your thoughts. Therefore, you should rush to repent if you have bad thoughts. Over the time, you will dare not have any bad thoughts, so you become a very fulfilling person. Your life will continue to be perfect, which has nothing to do with the specific occupation. Those who are engaged in any profession, as long as they believe in the teachings of the Buddha and put into practice, rely on the constant persistence of life after life, and eventually they can become Buddha. A fundamental difference between Buddhism and theology is that everyone has buddha nature and everyone can become a Buddha. The Buddha is a person who has realized the laws governing the life and the Universe, not the savior who created everything in the Universe and determined the fate of every life.

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A Constantly Improving Life Model

Feng Zikai proposed a three-storey life model in interpreting Hongyi’s lifestyle. The first floor is a material life manifested by money, the second floor is a spiritual life manifested by science and art, and the third floor is a soul life manifested by philosophy and religion, shown in (Figure 1) [28]. The present author has refined this model into a nine-floor model that is practical and measurable, shown in (Figure 1). The first floor is from birth to primary school, the second floor is the middle school, and the third floor is the university stage, from undergraduate to postdoctorate. If your ability is strong, you may be able to solve your own survival problems at this stage, then you can concentrate on scientific research or artistic creation afterwards. If your academic level is high and your achievements are rich, the salary paid by the society is relatively high. You can continue a good material life while pursue a spiritual life of higher levels.

Taking scientific research as an example, there can be a triple realm for this career from fourth floor to sixth floor. The fourth floor is that you can direct yourself and the computer to solve a singledisciplinary problem. The fifth floor is the use of administrative power to direct a team to conduct multidisciplinary research, and to develop a product with practical value in the future. However, because the resources of administrative posts are very limited, not everyone can have the chance to be promoted. Some highly capable people do not necessarily have this opportunity. Those who have such an opportunity can continue to climb. The sixth floor relies on one’s personality charm to direct a team to conduct multidisciplinary research. However, people should constantly think about such problems in the process of scientific research. Why should I do scientific research? What good is it for my life? What is the standard of success for my life? After thinking about these questions, it can be said that you are starting to climb the seventh floor of Self enlightening the Universe and life. If you can help others to enlighten the Universe and life, you are judged to reach the eighth floor. We define the Buddha who has enlightened the highest realm of the Universe and life as the ninth floor. This is a nine-floor life model from how an ordinary person can improve his moral realm step by step.

Whether it is possible to establish a measurement method for the moral realm of self-cultivation in the process of becoming a Buddha, let yourself better understand the degree of selfcultivation and build confidence in cultivation. We found that Hawkins’ levels of consciousness theory [28] can fully match this nine-floor life model, shown in (Figure 2). Based on the present author’s understanding of Hawkins’ levels of consciousness theory, it is suggested that level 4 corresponds to 150-200, level 5 corresponds to 200-250, level 6 corresponds to 250-350, level 7 corresponds to 350-500, level 8 corresponds to 500-700 and level 9 corresponds to 700-1000. Persons in the first three floors are defined according to the age and there is no specific correspondence to the levels of consciousness, most of persons may be within the range of 100 to 200 and there are some persons may exceed 200 and of course few persons may be less than 100.

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Summary and Conclusion

Based on the phenomenon that most of the interviewed students answered that they do not have a faith, the various issues related to faith are discussed in this paper. It is thought that there are two main reasons for this problem. One is that the materialistic philosophy taught at school and university was not accepted by them and does not become their faith. Second, they may think that philosophy is useless, and they have not tried hard to find another philosophy that they would like to believe as the object of their faith. For them, it seems that only scientific and technical knowledge and the ability to solve practical engineering problems are important. Whether or not there is faith does not matter. As far as my personal experience in scientific research and life for more than 30 years is concerned, this view is very incorrect. The power that faith brings to me is enormous. Therefore, the author has presented some thoughts on the issues related to faith in this paper. The main points can be summarized as follows:

a) Faith is the same as the body, and everyone has it. The essential difference is whether you believe in yourself or others. The so-called people without faith means that they believe in their instincts and knowledge and do not believe in others;

b) Since the Hierarch has passed the historical test to be a successful person and you have not yet walked the path of life, the Hierarch is more reliable to be trusted than yourself;

c) There are three criteria to consider when choosing the Hierarch. The first is whether the life of the Hierarch is what you want; the second is whether the theory of the Hierarch can stand the test of scientific standards; the third is how many great people who have worshipped this philosophy have cultivated.

d) Five suggestions are offered on how to apply faith to guide your work or life.

i. Carefully read the biography of the Hierarch and understand his way of thinking.

ii. Study this philosophical theory carefully and understand the general problem-solving method.

iii. Apply the theory to your work and life.

iv. When you encounter a major problem, you should try to figure out how the Hierarch will solve this problem.

v. Always feel that the Hierarch is watching you and you dare not do bad things. Once you have a bad idea, you should regret it immediately.

e) Finally, the author proposed a nine-floor life model that is constantly improving oneself and Hawkins’ levels of consciousness measurement can be used to detect the floor one has reached.

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Li Yuan: There are seven chairs and ten kids. What do you do?

Li Jiancheng: Have everyone stand.

Empress Zhangsun: Bring three more chairs!

Li Shimin: The most important ones can sit down.

Li Yuanji: Kill three.

An Overview of Comparative-Historical Chinese Dialectology (I)

As promised, here is the first in a hopefully long series of long posts on the dialectology of Chinese.

One of the first things most of us learn about Chinese is that “Chinese” is not a single language like French or Spanish--there are hundreds of different Chineses, belonging to around ten to a dozen major subgroups, which are not mutually intelligible with each other. To wit:

About a sixth of humanity speaks some variety of Chinese natively. In theory, most of those native speakers are native speakers of Mandarin, which has been the court language of the (northern) Chinese government since at least the Jin dynasty (12th century AD) depending on how you want to define “Mandarin” and “language of the Chinese government,” but in fact there is a great deal of dialectal diversity within Mandarin and rural areas still tend to be robust bastions of local varieties. (The question "what counts as Mandarin?” is a surprisingly difficult one to answer. We’ll return to it in a later post.)

Because there is a lot of confusing terminology surrounding the modern varieties of Chinese, it’s worth taking a bit of time to get some terms straight. Chinese as used in these blog posts refers to the modern varieties taken as a group. The official language of modern China is Putonghua (”standard language”), which is the standardized prestige variety of Mandarin, the largest subgroup within Chinese. Modern varieties of Chinese are all descended from Middle Chinese, which was spoken from about the late Han dynasty (~200 AD) to the early Tang (~650 AD), at about which point it started to diverge into the modern varieties. Middle Chinese is descended from Old Chinese, which is attested from the Shang Dynasty oracle bones (c. 1250 BC) until about the Middle Chinese period. Everything from Shang Dynasty-era oracle bones to the modern street language of Beijing or of a tiny village in Fujian is covered under the term Sinitic, which is opposed to the non-Sinitic varieties of Sino-Tibetan such as Qiangic, Tibetic, Burmic and Kiranti.

(traditionally, Sino-Tibetan has been divided into Sinitic on the one hand and Tibeto-Burman on the other, the latter grouping being used as a grab bag for everything in the family that isn’t Sinitic. This phylogeny is probably wrong, or at least there are no real reasons for thinking it is correct, but because so much of Sino-Tibetan is understudied and Sino-Tibetan philology is an extremely large field with vast amounts of uncharted or at least underanalyzed territory it survives in the absence of any better-grounded models.)

It is semi-traditional to refer to Chinese as a language and its varieties--Mandarin, Yue (Cantonese), Hakka, Min, etc.--as dialects. In a sense, this breaks the letter of the law but arguably follows the spirit. Insofar as a language is a group of dialects which show mutual intelligibility, the term dialect is incorrect--Cantonese is no more mutually intelligible with Mandarin than Portuguese is with Romanian or Dutch with Icelandic. Min Chinese has been a separate entity for about two millennia at this point; its varieties are not “dialects” of a “Chinese language” along with the “dialects” of Mandarin and Hakka in any recognizable sense.

However, there is an important sense in which the use of dialect is semi-correct:  native Chinese philology has traditionally regarded “Chinese” as a single language, and its varieties as “dialects” (or fāngyán, 方言). As Victor J. Mair notes in an excellent article dissecting the problem, the term fāngyán is at least two thousand years old at this point and has even been used at times to include languages such as Japanese and the languages of Europe which are not related to Chinese at all. The tradition in Western sources is to use the term “dialect” as a direct translation of fāngyán (and “Chinese language” as a translation of hànyǔ), which is extremely misleading in terms of mutual intelligibility but does kind of map semi-faithfully onto the native Chinese philological model. Mair suggests using the term “topolects,” but the rather more neutral term “variety” has more currency these days, and I will do my best to stick to it throughout this series of blog posts.

Chinese is a fascinating case study, or rather series of case studies, for the historical linguist. It possesses over three millennia of continuous attestation, but unlike Western alphabetic scripts or even the cuneiform syllabary its script reveals its phonetic secrets only through smoke and mirrors (in the form of rhyming poetry, the rebus principle, and passing remarks in old sources). The first comprehensive source of evidence with anything like a sense of modern phonemic description, the Qièyùn, comes along in the early 7th century AD--more than halfway through the attested history of the language. The modern varieties, including the wayward Min, almost all descend from the Late Old Chinese/Early Middle Chinese of the early first millennium AD (approximately, but not exactly, contemporaneous with the Qièyùn), and the proto-language recoverable from the modern varieties thus postdates the earliest sources by nearly a millennium and a half. A great deal of disparate and unusual evidence--transcriptions of Sanskrit terms, borrowings into Tai-Kadai or Korean or Vietnamese, comparative evidence from the other members of Sino-Tibetan, pejorative remarks about dialectal forms--must be assembled to make sense of the earliest stages of the language, which did not sound anything like any descendant spoken today.

The roadmap for the next few posts will be:

- an overview of Old Chinese, mostly cribbed from Baxtar and Sagart’s Old Chinese: a New Reconstruction, with references to other attempts to get a handle on the phonological system of Old Chinese, such as Karlgren;

- an overview of the Middle Chinese of the Qièyùn and its development from Old Chinese;

- posts on the modern varieties: Mandarin, Yue, Hakka, Gan, Xiang, Wu and Min. I don’t know that I’ll be able to find enough on Hui or Ping to write much about them--I can’t read Mandarin--but I’ll do my best. Varieties about which little is written in English or another language I can read may end up in a grab-bag post at the end. 

More anon!

FIRE ALTARS  FIRE ALTARS, a survey of sites. Fire altar is a term adopted by modern researchers to designate the stand upon which sacred fire was placed. Strictly speaking, the designation “fire altar” is incorrect, since the structure was not used to receive a sacrifice, but simply to hold the fire for the purposes of veneration, probably contained within a metal or clay bowl. Mary Boyce has suggested the appellation “fire-holder”; although more accurate, this designation has not won wide acceptance (Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, p. 52; Houtkamp, p. 24). Because the term fire altar has such immediate and direct connotations of Zoroastrian worship, it should probably also be restricted to those structures which have a clear Zoroastrian religious context. Scholarship concerning fire altars has rarely been this precise, and the term has in general been used to characterize any altar-like structure which may have held sacred fire (see EIr. III, pp. 7-9, for terms designating the fire altar). The question of the identification of fire altars is further complicated by our lack of understanding of the exact role of sacred fire in ancient Iran (and how that role may have changed over time), how and when the structures identified as fire altars were used in ancient ritual, and whether the appearance of a fire altar indicates the presence of Zoroastrian ritual or some other, unknown religion (Genito, 1987; Herrenschmidt; in general see Boyce, Zoroastrianism I and, II; Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, for criteria for identifying the presence of Zoroastrian religion). Classical literary sources and Achaemenid artistic evidence (e.g., seals, tomb reliefs, etc.) suggest that sacred fire assumed a central role in the religion of the Achaemenid kings, although its exact nature is lost to us (Houtkamp, for the pictorial evidence; Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, passim, esp. pp. 50-62, 112-16; Yamamoto, 1979, pp. 26-36); the question is intimately tied to the continuing debate on Achaemenid state religion and the role that Zoroastrianism played (cf. Boyce, Zoroastrianism I and II; Herzfeld; Beneviste; Duchesne-Guillemin, 1953; idem 1958; Gerschevitch, pp. 8-22; Kellens, ed.; for evidence provided by the Persepolis Fortification tablets see Koch, 1977 and idem, 1991; cf. Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, pp. 132-37, commenting on Koch). Most scholars have sought the origins of Zoroastrian and Achaemenid fire worship in veneration of the household hearth fire (Boyce, Zoroastrianism I, pp. 154-55; Genito, 1982, passim, esp. pp. 231-32). How much earlier we can project back the worship of fire is unclear (for an extreme view see Khlopin, who traces the fire altar back to the fourth millennium B.C.E.). J. Houtkamp and Yumiko Yamamoto (1979) have collected the archaeological and pictorial evidence for fire altars in the Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian periods (see also Schippmann, 1971, pp. 473-85; Stronach, 1985; Genito, 1987). Of the two types of altar which the pictorial evidence preserves, the distinctive Iranian altar with a stepped top and base has been quite frequently identified in the archaeological record (Moorey; Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, pp. 145-148; Yamamoto, 1979, pp. 30-36, identifies three types of altar). On the other hand, the second form of altar, the crenellated tower altar, is almost entirely absent in the Iranian archaeological record (but cf. the rock-cut altar in Fārs at Bāḡ-e Bodra [Stronach, 1966, pp. 223-24, fig. 7], perhaps Achaemenid in date, which conceivably represents an example of the tower altar). Various other types of structures have also been characterized as fire altars. Predating the Achaemenid period is the altar found in the central temple at Tepe Nūš-e Jān (near Hamadān), dating to about 750-600 B.C.E. (Plate I; Stronach, 1973; Houtkamp, p. 34; for other references see Boyce, 1975, pp. 456-57). This plastered mud brick altar had a straight-sided socle rising directly from the floor, surmounted by four steps. In the middle of the square upper surface a shallow, hemispherical fire bowl showed extensive traces of burning (Stronach, 1984, pp. 479-80). It is clear from the shallowness of the bowl, however, that it could never have sustained ever-burning fire. The striking stepped form of this altar suggests that it could have been a prototype (pre-Zoroastrian) for the later stepped stone altars of the Achaemenid period (Stronach, personal communication). The two well-known square limestone plinths in the sacred precinct at Pasargadae (Fārs) may have some connection to a fire ritual (Plate II; Stronach, 1978, pp. 138-45, figs 70-71, 74; Yamamoto, 1979, pp. 28-29, for a survey of interpretations). The southern one has a stepped top and stone steps. The northern one may also have had a stepped top. How exactly these structures were used is unknown, although the southern one is identified as a podium for viewing fire displayed on the northern one. Construction technique and historical circumstance of the site of Pasargadae suggest a date at the time of Cyrus. Pasargadae has also produced a fragment of a three-stepped altar top with a deep bowl and two three-stepped altar bases (one of which may belong to the altar top; see Stronach, 1978, pp. 141-42, fig. 72, pl. 107b; Houtkamp, p. 37; Plate III). Boyce (Zoroastrianism II, pp. 51-52) takes these fragments to be the earliest known fire altar. At Altin Tepe-10 (q.v.; south of Turkmenistan), in one of the corner rooms in Structure II, there was found “a heap of three-stepped unbaked clay pyramids covered with white gypsum,” which have been interpreted as remains of a fire altar (Sarianidi, p. 102, figs. 49-50; Houtkamp, p. 34). The suggested date is late 5th century B.C.E. At Dahan-e Ḡolāmān (q.v.; Sīstān) Building 3 (QN3), a large square courtyard surrounded by porticoes and rooms (towers) in the corners, was described by Scerrato as a “holy building” (Scerrato, 1979, p. 712). In its earlier Phase A the building contained some forty-seven fire “chests” (ibid., p. 716). In phase B, the complex was completely re-modeled, and the porticos housed “large ovens,” “stoves” and “fire-places.” In the middle of the courtyard there were three rectangular altars, each standing on a wide base and having small stairways (perhaps present in Phase A as well; Scerrato, 1979, p. 724). Scerrato (1979, p. 719) suggested that a fire burned inside each altar. In a slightly later Phase B1, ten to twelve low rectangular platforms, each having a hemispherical depression in its center to contain fire, were installed in the north portico. Scerrato (1979, pp. 725, 731-33) suggested that building QN3 provided the earliest evidence for the worship of three deities and the “Indo-Iranian doctrine of the three fires” (cf., however, Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, pp. 128-31, articulating the un-Zoroastrian character of the complex). Building QN3 is usually dated in the Achaemenid period (cf. Houtkamp, p. 16; Schippmann, 1971, pp. 50-57, figs. 6-7). Dahan-e Ḡolāmān has also yielded the stepped base to a “fire altar” (house QN6; Scerrato, 1979, p. 727, fig. 16; Genito, 1987, pp. 480-81, pls. 1, 3) and a complete “fire altar” with stepped top and hemispherical depression for fire or fire container (near building QN16; Scerrato, 1979, p. 727, figs. 18-19; Genito 1987, pp. 480-81, pls. 2-3). The excavators feel that both are Achaemenid in date (Houtkamp, p. 36). The site of Bünyan (in central Turkey) has produced a possible altar (now in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara): a limestone pedestal with a two-stepped plinth (with relief decoration) and top (Houtkamp, pp. 34-35). The exact context and date of the monument are not known. A four-stepped top of a pink sandstone altar has been found at Ḵākrīz (Khakriz; Kermānšāh; Gaube, p. 155, fig. 2, pl. 32.4; Houtkamp, p. 36). Dates for the monument vary from Achaemenid (Kleiss) to Sasanian (Vanden Berghe, p. 515). The conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great and the subsequent Hellenization of the country evidently brought a great deal of destruction of Persian religious sites (Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 3-22). Classical sources describe, however, actual fire temples, thus providing contemporary documentation for the temple cult of ever-burning fire (Yamamoto, 1979, pp. 41-42, 49-50; Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 235-38, 269-71). Strabo (15.3.15) describes an ever-burning fire altar and its associated upkeep and ritual in Cappadocia; Pausanias (5.27.5-6) in Hierocaesareia and Hypaepa in Lydia. The late source Isidor of Charax also refers to the survival of a fire in the town of Asask, home of the Arsacid dynasty (Schippmann, 1971, pp. 33-34; Boyce, 1975, pp. 461-62); perhaps this fire was the dynastic fire of the Arsacid family (Yamamoto, 1979, pp. 40-41). Owing to the large number of independent regional powers in the Parthian period, scholars postulate an increase in local “dynastic fires” (e.g., Boyce, Zoroastrianism I, p. 461), a practice which may have its origin in the Achaemenid period. Depictions of stepped fire altars occur on at least one series (the third series: Darius II, Ozathres, and Artaxerxes II) of silver coins of the so-called frataraka rulers of Persis (Houtkamp, pp. 44-45; Yamamoto, 1979, pp. 45-49, pl. 53; Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 110-16; Stronach, 1966, pp. 220-23, 227; Sellwood, pp. 300-6, pls. 10/12, 11/2), as well as on the coins of the Arsacid rulers Vologeses I (Yamamoto, 1979, p. 449, pls. 54-55) and Vologeses IV (Duchesne-Guillemin, in Camb. Hist. Iran, p. 867). Fire altars of other shapes occur in the coinage of Hierocaesareia, Hypaepa, Zela and a few other Greek cities (Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 230-31, 235, 288, 300), on some tomb reliefs in Media (Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 95-106) and perhaps on rock-cut reliefs at Bīsotūn and Tang-e Sarvak (Schlumberger, pp. 1041, 1043-44, pl. 64). The innermost room of the fire temple at Kūh-e Ḵᵛāja (Sīstān, Schippmann, 1971, pp. 57-70, figs. 10 and 83; Yamamoto, 1979, p. 43), a monument with a still uncertain structural history, yielded (in later levels) a stepped fire altar which Ernst Herzfeld dated to the first century B.C.E. (Figure 1; Yamamoto, 1979, p. 43, pl. 34, identified it as the oldest surviving Zoroastrian altar; but now cf. Huff). Site IV at Šahr-e Qūmes (near Dāmḡān, q.v.) shows a plan with some similarities to that of the temple at Tepe Nūš-e Jān (Yamamoto, 1979, p. 44-45, fig. 7). The building was abandoned in the first century B.C.E. In room 5 was discovered a small plinth (plastered mudbrick) which supported a “fire bowl.” The room described as a small sanctuary in the temple at Sorḵ Kotal (Afghanistan) preserved a long “bench-altar” with attached bird figures and large amounts of ash (Schippmann, 1971, pp. 492-96, fig. 81; Yamamoto, 1979, 44-45; Boyce, 1975, pp. 461-62). Although this structure has been linked with an ever-burning fire ritual, neither the altar nor the layout of the sanctuary conform to Zoroastrian types. The square central room of the complex had a large stone platform in its center whose function is unclear (fire altar, support for cult image, or both?). The date of the complex is uncertain (Boyce, 1975, pp. 461-62; Stronach, 1985, pp. 622-23). At Taḵt-e Sangīn (on the right bank of the Oxus River) each of two subsidiary rooms in the temple contained a square fire altar (Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 173-79). In the corners there were also small fire altars, and large amounts of ash covered the floors. All the altars were mud brick and had received numerous coats of plaster. According to the excavators, these chambers were a feature of the temple from its inception. Boyce considered the complex the “earliest clear example of temple fires kept according to Zoroastrian regulations” (Boyce and Grenet, Zoro astrianism, p. 178). She did not consider the structure a fire temple, but an image temple with accessory fire chambers. In the lower city at Persepolis (Fārs) about 300 m. from the terrace, Herzfeld uncovered a structure which he called the “Fratadara Temple” (Plate IV; Schippmann, 1971, pp. 177-85, fig. 24). Room 5 of the western part of the complex contained a stepped-stone pedestal, perhaps the base of a stepped fire altar (fig. 4; Kleiss, figs. 1-2). The date (Achaemenid-Seleucid) of the entire complex has often been debated (Stronach, 1985, pp. 612-17, for recent survey of the evidence). Boyce (Zoroastrianism II, pp. 226-27), preferring a Achaemenid date for the whole of the western complex, identified it as an image shrine dedicated to Anahita, and characterized Room 5 as a “side chapel, with a different dedication.” In a subsequent publication (Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 117-18), she was less certain of both the date and function of the building. The enigmatic structure unearthed by Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy (q.v.) at Susa (Ḵūzestān) has often been identified as a temple (Schippmann, 1971, pp. 266-74, 496, fig. 38, for discussion and references). Dieulafoy’s plan may show the possible presence of an altar between the four columns of the main room, but his text makes no reference to such an installation (Stronach, 1985, p. 621; Schippmann, 1971, fig. 38). Dieulafoy (pp. 411-15) dated the building to the Achaemenid period based upon the style of the architectural fragments, but a Parthian date has also been suggested by David Stronach (1985, pp. 619-21, suggesting a date in the 2nd cent. B.C.E; Yamamoto, 1979, pp. 37-38, follows Dieulafoy’s dating). Various literary sources, such as the inscriptions of Shapur I and his high priest Kirdēr (Boyce, Zoroastrianism II, pp. 222-23; Duchesne-Guillemin, in Camb. Hist. Iran, pp. 876-79) and Nāma-ye Tansar (ed. Mīnovī, p. 68) show that the establishment of Sasanian rule involved the destruction of many local dynastic fires. This seems to have been part of the early Sasanian kings’ desire to establish their dynastic fire as a symbol of the unity of the whole empire. The Sasanian period also saw, however, the foundation of new fires, many established to eradicate the worship of idols and to substitute in their place the worship of fire (see ĀTAŠ for types of fire identified in the Sasanian period). Pahlavi books repeatedly mention three famous sacred fires for the Sasanian period: Ādur Burzēn-Mihr (in Parthia), Ādur Farnbāg (in Fārs), and Ādur Gušnasp (in Media; qq.v.). Most scholars assume that they pre-date the Sasanian period, and all three had traditions connecting them with the original creation in Zoroastrian myth, but evidence is lacking as to the exact times of their actual founding (see Schippmann, 1971, pp. 86-94, 340-54; Boyce, 1975, pp. 459-60; Boyce and Grenet, Zoroastrianism, pp. 74-81; Yamamoto, 1979, p. 42; idem, 1981, pp. 74-75, 84-85). The relocated Ādur Gušnasp has been identified as the site of Taḵt-e Solaymān in Azerbaijan (see below); the exact locations of the other two fires are unknown. Depictions of fire altars are common, especially on seals and coinage (Yamamoto, 1979, p. 46; idem, 1981, pls. 18-35). Seals almost always depict the stepped altar type (one or two steps; Yamamoto, 1981, pp. 68-71). Coins show variations of the familiar stepped altar with fire blazing atop it; the king stands to the left of the altar in an attitude of reverence, a variety of personages to the right (ibid., pls. 2-9). Sasanian issues of the 4th and 5th centuries sometimes show a human bust in the flames on the altar or on the pillar (ibid., pp. 69-70, reviews the evidence). The appearance of fire altars on official coinage shows again the interconnectedness of fire cult and political legitimacy for the Sasanian kings. The rock relief of the investiture of Ardašīr I at Fīrūzābād includes a fire altar in the form of a large bowl supported by a pillar on a squared stand (ibid., pl. 1). Yumiko Yamamoto (1981) and Klaus Schippmann (1971, pp. 475-76, 499-515) have collected the material concerning fire altars and fire worship for the Sasanian period. The stepped altar remained the standard type in the period. Schippmann (p. 505, and Table 3) identified forty-nine or fifty fire temples for the Sasanian period, the great majority of them occurring in Fārs and the neighboring provinces of Ḵūzestān and ʿErāq-e ʿAjam. Both Schippmann (pp. 499-510) and Yamamoto (1981, p. 79) identified the ubiquitous square structure having an arch in each wall (čahārṭāq “four arches,” q.v.) and piers in each corner supporting on squinches a dome (gonbad) as the place where the sacred fire was housed in the fire temple. Stronach (1966, pp. 219-20, 226; idem, 1985, pp. 623-27) has discussed the standard juxtaposition of an open čahārṭāq and a protected ataškada (repository for the sacred fire). Especially in southwest Persia, fire temples seem to have been a ubiquitous feature of the landscape. Ḵosrow II Parvēz alone is reported to have founded 353 fire temples (Duschesne Guillemin, 1983, p. 896). Of the fifty fire temples Schippmann (1971) identified for the Sasanian period, forty-one of them are čahārṭāqs, the great majority of them located in Fārs and Erāq-e ʿAjam (q.v.; note, however, the possible fire temples in central Asia at Kurgan Tepe [an earlier square altar base replaced later by a circular one; see Pugačhenkova] and Panjīkant [fire cult associated with image worship; see Škoda]). Few of the fifty structures catalogued by Schippmann are well preserved, excavated and/or well published. The preservation of actual fire altars from these sites is also rare. The most famous (and one of the largest and best preserved) fire sanctuary from the Sasanian period is the complex located at Taḵt-e Solaymān in Azerbaijan, to which place the famous fire Ādur Gušnasp seems to have been moved sometime in antiquity (Schippmann, 1971, pp. 309-57, figs. 41-46; Yamamoto, 1981, p. 75, figs. 1-2; Duchesne-Guillemin, in Camb. Hist. Iran, p. 895). In a small, well-protected room in the western part of the complex was found a large three-stepped base of an important stepped fire altar, perhaps even that of the main fire itself (Boyce, 1975, pp. 464-65; Yamamoto, 1981, p. 75, pl. 48). The site has also yielded several other possible fire altars (Huff). In the Sasanian period there were also open-air religious sites which have yielded fire altars. The most celebrated are the twin altars at Naqš-e Rostam near Persepolis in Fārs (see FĀRS v. PLATE III ). Each of the cubic altars carries a relief of an arch on each of its sides ( Yamamoto, 1981, p. 97, pl. 53; Stronach, 1966, pp. 219-20, 227, fig. 6, defending Erdmann’s thesis that the design of the altars emulates the čahārṭāq). A different form of the same type occurs singularly at Kūh-e Šahrak (Fārs; Stronach, 1966, figs. 2-5). Rock and stone monuments of various shapes which support fire bowls on their top surfaces have been documented at Darra-ye Barra (q.v., Fārs; Stronach, 1966, p. 224, figs. 8-11), Tang-e Karam (Fārs; Stronach, 1966, pp. 224, figs. 12-13; cf. contra, Trümpelmann, pp. 21-22), Naqš-e Rostam (Stronach, 1966, p. 224, fig. 19; Vanden Berghe, p. 514), Kūh-e Ayyūb (Fārs; Stronach, 1966, p. 226), and Bīšāpūr (q.v., Fārs; Stronach, 1966, p. 223). Stepped altars supported on pillars occur at Qanāt-e Bāḡ (Fārs; Stronach, 1966, p. 224; Vanden Berghe, pls. 60-63), Pengān (Vanden Berghe, p. 514), Kūh-e Ḥosayn (Fārs; Vanden Berghe, p. 514), Kūh-e Raḥmat (Fārs; Vanden Berghe, p. 514), Šamīrūn (Vanden Berghe, p. 514), near Sīrāf (Fārs; Gaube, pp. 154-57, pl. 32.1 and 32.5), and Persepolis (Scerrato, p. 726; Schippmann, 1969; Vanden Berghe, p. 514). Fire bowls in the tops of these monuments indicate that they held fire, but the exact manner in which they were used is unknown. Because all these free-standing monuments stand in the open, certainly none of them could have held an ever-burning fire (Vanden Berghe, pp. 516-18, for speculations on their uses). The platforms in the open air sanctuaries at Bard-e Nešānda (q.v., Ḵūzestān) and Masjed-e Solaymān (Ḵūzestān) have also been identified as supports for (now missing) fire altars (Schippmann, 1971, pp. 233-51, figs. 33-36, for Masjed-e Solaymān [dating disputed]; 251-58, fig. 37, for Bard-e Nešānda). See also ĀTAŠ; ĀTAŠDĀN; and ĀTAŠKADA.   Bibliography (for cited works not given in detail, see Short References”): E. Benveniste, The Persian Religion According to the Chief Greek Texts, Paris, 1929. M. Boyce, “On the Sacred Fires of the Zoroastrians,” BSO(A)S 31, 1968, pp. 52-68. Idem, “On the Zoroastrian Temple Cult of Fire,” JOAS 95, 1975, pp. 454-65. J. de Menasce, Feux et foundations pieuses dans le droit sassanide, Paris, 1964. M. A. Dieulafoy, L’Acropole de Suse d’après les fouilles exécutées en 1884, 1885, 1886 sous les auspices du Musée du Louvre, Paris, 1893. J. Duchesne-Guillemin, Ormazd et Ahriman. L’Aventure dualiste dans l’Antiquité, Paris, 1953. Idem, The Western Response to Zoroaster, Oxford, 1958. Idem, “Zoroastrian Religion,” in Camb. Hist. Iran III/2, pp. 866-906. H. Gaube, “Im Hinterland von Sīrāf,” AMI 13, 1980, pp. 149-66. B. Genito, “Hearths of the Iranian Area: A Typological Analysis,” Annali Istituto Orientale di Napoli 42, 1982, pp. 195-245. Idem, “Altari a gradini nell’Iran antico,” in G. Gnoli and L. Lanciotti, eds., Orientalia Iosephi Tucci Memoriae Dicata, IsMEO, Serie Orientale Roma 54/2, Rome, 1987, pp. 475-86. I. Gerschevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, U.K., 1959. C. Herrenschmidt, “La religion des Achéménides: Etat de la question,” Stud. Ir. 9, 1980, pp. 325-39. E. Herzfeld, “The Iranian Religion at the Time of Darius and Xerxes,” Religions 15, 1936, pp. 20-28. J. Houtkamp, “Some Remarks on Fire Altars of the Achaemenid Period,” in Kellens, ed., pp. 23-48. D. Huff, “Grabrelief von Deh Now,” Stud, Ir.28(1999), pp. 7-40. J. Kellens, ed., La religion iranienne à l’époque achéménide, Actes du Colloque de Liege 11 decembre 1987, Iranica Antiqua Supplement 5, Gent, 1991. I. N. Khlopin, “Zoroastrianism: Location and Time of its Origin,” Iranica Antiqua 27, 1992, pp. 95-116. W. Kleiss, “Bermerkungen zu achaemenidischen Feueraltären,” AMI 14, 1981, pp. 61-64. H. Koch, Die religiösen Verhältnisse der Dariuszeit: Untersuchungen an Hand der elamischen Perse polistäfelchen, Göttinger Orientforschungen 4, Wiesbaden, 1977. Idem, “Zu Religion und Kulten im Achämenidischen Kernland,” in J. Kellens, ed., La religion iranienne à l’époque achéménide: Actes du Colloque de Liège 11 decembre 1987, Iranica Antiqua Supplement 5, Gent, 1991, pp. 87-109. D. N. Mackenzie, “The Fire Altar of Happy *Frayosh,” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 7, 1993, pp. 105-10. M. Mīnovī, ed., Nāma-ye Tansar, 2nd ed., Tehran, 1354 Š./1975. P. R. S. Moorey, “Aspects of Worship and Ritual on Achaemenid Seals,” in Akten des VII. Internationalen Kongresses für Kunst und Archäologie, München 1976, AMI Ergänzungsband 6, Berlin, 1979, pp. 218-26. G. A. Pugačhenkova, “Un temple du feu dans le ‘grand Soghd’,” in F. Grenet, ed., Cultes et monuments religieux dans l’Asia centrale préislamique, Paris, 1987, pp. 53-72. V. I. Sarianidi, “Bactrian Centre of Ancient Art,” Mesopotamia 12, 1977, pp. 97-110. U. Scerrato, “Evidence of Religious Life at Dahan-e Ghulāmān, Sistān,” in M. Taddei, ed., South Asian Archaeology 1977, Naples, 1979, II, pp. 709-35. D. Schlumberger, “Parthian Art,” in Camb. Hist. Iran III/2, pp. 1027-54. D. Sellwood, “Minor States in Southern Iran,” Camb. Hist. Iran III/1, pp. 299-321. K. Schippmann, “Hinweise und Anmerkungen zu einigen sasanidischen Monumenten,” Iran 7 1969, pp. 157-62. Idem, Die iranischen Feuerheiligtümer, Berlin and New York, 1971. V. G. Škoda, “Le culte de feu dans les sanctuaries de Pendzikent,” in F. Grenet, ed., Cultes et monuments religieux dans l’Asia centrale préislamique, Paris, 1987, pp. 63-72. D. Stronach, “The Kūh-i Shahrak Fire Altar,” JNES25, 1966, pp. 217-27. Idem, “Tepe Nūsh-i Jān, 1970: Second Interium Report,” Iran 11, 1973, pp. 129-38. Idem, Pasargadae, Oxford, 1978. Idem, “Notes on Religion in Iran in the Seventh and Sixth Centuries B.C.,” in Orientalia J. Duchesne-Guillemin emerito oblata, Acta Iranica 23, 1984, pp. 479-90. Idem, “On the Evolution of the Early Iranian Fire Temple,” in Papers in Honour of Professor Mary Boyce, Acta Iranica25, 1985, pp. 605-27. L. Trümpelmann, Zwischen Persepolis und Firuzabad: Gräber, Paläste und Felsreliefs im alten Persien, Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie 1, Mainz, 1991. L. Vanden Berghe, “L’autel du feu de Qanāt-i Bāgh,” Acta Iranica 23, 1984, pp. 511-18. Y. Yamamoto, “The Zoroastrian Temple Cult of Fire in Archaeology and Literature (I),” Orient 15, 1979, pp. 19-53. Idem, “The Zoroastrian Temple Cult of Fire in Archaeology and Literature (II),” Orient 17, 1981, pp. 67-104.   Figure 1. Stepped fire altar, Kūh-e Ḵᵛāja (Parthian). After Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East, London and New York, 1941, p. 301, fig. 397. Plate I. Pre-Achaemenid fire altar and protective wall, Tepe Nūš-e Jān (8th-7th c. B.C.E.). Courtesy of D. Stronach. Plate II. Dual plinths, Sacred Precinct, Pasargadae (Achaemenid, time of Cyrus). After D. Stronach, Pasargadae, Oxford, 1978, pl. 103. By permission of Oxford University Press. Plate III. Fragment of fire bowl (inverted), Pasargadae. After Stronach, Pasargadae. By permission of Oxford University press. Plate IV. Possible fire altar in Room 5 of the “Fratadara Temple” at Persepolis (Parthian). After Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East, pl. LXXXV. (Mark Garrison) Originally Published: December 15, 1999 Last Updated: January 26, 2012 This article is available in print. Vol. IX, Fasc. 6, pp. 613-619 Cite this entry: Mark Garrison, “FIRE ALTARS,” Encyclopædia Iranica, IX/6, pp. 613-619, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/fire-altars (accessed on 30 December 2012). FIRE ALTARS 0 COMMENTSADD COMMENT 1 TAGADD A TAG SECTIONS IN THIS ENTRY IMAGES / TABLES TAGS ©2018 ENCYCLOPÆDIA IRANICA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. ISSN 2330-4804

Japanese and Chinese Ancient Clothing

The Chinese were always a fashionable race and Chinese historical clothing was mostly influenced by all of the dynasties which ruled it. The Hanfu principles of grooming were followed rigorously as a sign of regard for the culture. On the flip side, ancient Japanese clothing kept changing with every dynasty that dominated Japan. Since the Kimono is a national apparel, it has at all times been mistaken for very ancient clothes worn by the Japanese people which is incorrect.

The basic design of this Ancient Chinese clothes Hanfu was mostly developed during the Shang Dynasty. The Shang had two primary styles - the Yi that was the coat worn on top along with the Shang whichwas the skirt worn under it. Buttons on any ancient Chinese clothes was substituted with a Sash. The clothes was in hot tones.

The Zhou dynasty in western China diverse in the sleeves being lean in addition to broad. The amount of the skirt diverse from knee length to the magnolia pearl shirts ankle and the various sizes and styles created a distinction between the men and women who wore them. Ancient Chinese clothes used minimum sewing on the garment and the usage of embroidery and silk sashes to design the dresses.

Japanese historical clothing was majorly influenced by Chinese clothing. Vigorous trade between Japan and its continental neighbors brought in Chinese dresses and fashions into Japan during the Han Dynasty. The Tang styles and Sui dynasty from China influenced clothing in Japan while it had been developing from an assortment of loose clans to an Empire.

Japanese and Chinese Ancient Clothing

The Chinese were always a stylish race and Chinese ancient clothes was mostly influenced by all of the dynasties which dominated it. The Han Chinese clothes or the Hanfu has the longest history of clothes worn. The Hanfu principles of grooming were followed rigorously as a sign of regard for the culture. On the flip side, ancient Japanese clothes kept shifting with every dynasty that ruled Japan. Since the Kimono is a national apparel, it has always been confused for very ancient clothes worn by the Japanese people which is incorrect.

The basic design of the Ancient Chinese clothing Hanfu was mostly developed during the Shang Dynasty. The Shang had two basic styles - the Yi which was the jacket worn on top along with also the Shang whichwas the skirt worn beneath it. Buttons on any ancient Chinese clothes was replaced with a Sash. The clothing was in warm tones.

The amount of the skirt varied from knee length to the ankle and the magnolia pearl bloomers different sizes and styles produced a distinction between the men and women who wore them. Ancient Chinese clothing used minimum stitching on the garment and the usage of lace and silk sashes to design the dresses.

Japanese ancient clothes was influenced by Chinese clothing. Vigorous commerce between Japan and its neighboring neighbors brought in Chinese gowns and fashions into Japan during the Han Dynasty. The Tang fashions and Sui dynasty from China impacted clothing in Japan while it was developing from a collection of loose clans to an Empire.

Japanese and Chinese Ancient Clothing

The Chinese were always a stylish race and Chinese historical clothing was largely influenced by all of the dynasties which dominated it. The Han Chinese clothes and also the Hanfu has the longest history of clothing worn. The Hanfu rules of grooming were followed strictly as a mark of respect for the civilization. On the other hand, magnolia pearl tops ancient Japanese clothes kept shifting with every dynasty that ruled Japan. Considering that the Kimono is a federal dress, it has always been mistaken for very ancient clothes worn by the Japanese people that's incorrect.

The basic design of this Ancient Chinese clothes Hanfu was mostly developed during the Shang Dynasty. The Shang had two basic styles - that the Yi that was the jacket worn on top and the Shang whichwas the skirt worn under it. Buttons on any historical Chinese clothing was substituted by a Sash. The clothing was in warm tones.

The Zhou dynasty in western China diverse in the sleeves being lean as well as broad. The length of the skirt diverse from knee length to the ankle and the different sizes and styles created a distinction between the men and women who wore them. Ancient Chinese clothes used minimal sewing on the garment and the use of lace and silk sashes to design the dresses.

Japanese historical clothes was influenced by Chinese clothes. Vigorous commerce between Japan and its neighboring neighbors brought in Chinese gowns and fashions to Japan during the Han Dynasty. The Tang fashions and Sui dynasty out of China impacted clothing in Japan while it was growing from a collection of loose clans to an Empire. All robes in Japan have been exploited from left to right just like the Chinese.