NASA’s Psyche Delivers First Images and Other Data

The mission team has celebrated several successes since its launch from Kennedy Space Center on Oct. 13. The latest is the operation of the spacecraft’s cameras.

NASA’s Psyche spacecraft is on a roll. In the eight weeks since it left Earth on Oct. 13, the orbiter has performed one successful operation after another, powering on scientific instruments, streaming data toward home, and setting a deep-space record with its electric thrusters. The latest achievement: On Monday, Dec. 4, the mission turned on Psyche’s twin cameras and retrieved the first images – a milestone called “first light.”

Already 16 million miles (26 million kilometers) from Earth, the spacecraft will arrive at its destination – the asteroid Psyche in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter – in 2029. The team wanted to test all of the science instruments early in the long journey to make sure they are working as intended, and to ensure there would be plenty of time to calibrate and adjust them as needed.

The imager instrument, which consists of a pair of identical cameras, captured a total of 68 images, all within a star field in the constellation Pisces. The imager team is using the data to verify proper commanding, telemetry analysis, and calibration of the images.

“These initial images are only a curtain-opener,” said Arizona State University’s Jim Bell, the Psyche imager instrument lead. “For the team that designed and operates this sophisticated instrument, first light is a thrill. We start checking out the cameras with star images like these, then in 2026 we’ll take test images of Mars during the spacecraft’s flyby. And finally, in 2029 we’ll get our most exciting images yet – of our target asteroid Psyche. We look forward to sharing all of these visuals with the public.”

The imager takes pictures through multiple color filters, all of which were tested in these initial observations. With the filters, the team will use photographs in wavelengths of light both visible and invisible to the human eye to help determine the composition of the metal-rich asteroid Psyche. The imager team will also use the data to create 3D maps of the asteroid to better understand its geology, which will give clues about Psyche’s history.

Solar Surprise

Earlier in the mission, in late October, the team powered on the magnetometer, which will provide crucial data to help determine how the asteroid formed. Evidence that the asteroid once had a magnetic field would be a strong indication that the body is a partial core of a planetesimal, a building block of an early planet. The information could help us better understand how our own planet formed.

Shortly after being powered on, the magnetometer gave scientists an unexpected gift: It detected a solar eruption, a common occurrence called a coronal mass ejection, where the Sun expels large quantities of magnetized plasma. Since then, the team has seen several of these events and will continue to monitor space weather as the spacecraft travels to the asteroid.

The good news is twofold. Data collected so far confirms that the magnetometer can precisely detect very small magnetic fields. It also confirms that the spacecraft is magnetically “quiet.” The electrical currents powering a probe of this size and complexity have the potential to generate magnetic fields that could interfere with science detections. Because Earth has its own powerful magnetic field, scientists obtained a much better measurement of the spacecraft magnetic field once it was in space.

In the Zone

On Nov. 8, amid all the work with the science instruments, the team fired up two of the four electric propulsion thrusters, setting a record: the first-ever use of Hall-effect thrusters in deep space. Until now, they’d been used only on spacecraft going as far as lunar orbit. By expelling charged atoms, or ions, of xenon gas, the ultra-efficient thrusters will propel the spacecraft to the asteroid (a 2.2-billion-mile, or 3.6-billion-kilometer journey) and help it maneuver in orbit.

Less than a week later, on Nov. 14, the technology demonstration built into the spacecraft, an experiment called Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC), set its own record. DSOC achieved first light by sending and receiving optical data from far beyond the Moon. The instrument beamed a near-infrared laser encoded with test data from nearly 10 million miles (16 million kilometers) away – the farthest-ever demonstration of optical communications.

The Psyche team has also successfully powered on the gamma-ray detecting component of its third science instrument, the gamma-ray and neutron spectrometer. Next, the instrument’s neutron-detecting sensors will be turned on the week of Dec. 11. Together those capabilities will help the team determine the chemical elements that make up the asteroid’s surface material.

More About the Mission

Arizona State University (ASU) leads the Psyche mission. A division of Caltech in Pasadena, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the mission’s overall management, system engineering, integration and test, and mission operations. Maxar Technologies in Palo Alto, California, provided the high-power solar electric propulsion spacecraft chassis. ASU leads the operations of the imager instrument, working in collaboration with Malin Space Science Systems in San Diego on the design, fabrication, and testing of the cameras.

JPL manages DSOC for the Technology Demonstration Missions program within NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate and the Space Communications and Navigation program within the Space Operations Mission Directorate.

Psyche is the 14th mission selected as part of NASA’s Discovery Program, managed by the agency’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. NASA’s Launch Services Program, based at Kennedy, managed the launch service.

Chromatography Instruments: A Guide to Essential Tools in Analytical Science

Chromatography is a powerful analytical technique used in various scientific fields, such as chemistry, biology, food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, and environmental analysis. It allows scientists to separate, identify, and quantify components present in complex mixtures. To perform chromatography effectively, a range of sophisticated instruments is required. In this article, we will explore some of the essential chromatography instruments used in modern analytical science.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Systems: HPLC is one of the most widely used chromatographic techniques. It employs a liquid mobile phase to separate and analyze samples. HPLC instruments consist of a solvent reservoir, pump, injector, column, detector, and data handling system. They offer high sensitivity, versatile separations, and excellent resolution. HPLC systems have applications in pharmaceutical analysis, environmental monitoring, forensic science, and more. Visit this site for more information about the types of chromatography instruments usually used: https://chromtech.com/

Gas Chromatography (GC) Systems: Gas chromatography is based on the separation of volatile compounds using a gaseous mobile phase. GC systems are equipped with a sample injector, column, detector, and temperature-controlled oven. They are commonly used to analyze volatile organic compounds (VOCs), fatty acids, hydrocarbons, pesticides, and other volatile substances. GC instruments find applications in environmental analysis, food safety, drug testing, and flavors and fragrances industries.

Mass Spectrometry (MS) Systems: Mass spectrometry is often coupled with chromatography techniques to enhance the identification and quantification of compounds. MS instruments measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions, providing information about the structure and composition of molecules. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) are widely used techniques for analyzing complex samples in fields like metabolomics, proteomics, environmental analysis, and drug discovery. Ensure you browse this website for more information about the various types of chromatography instruments.

Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) Systems: Thin-layer chromatography is a simple yet powerful chromatography technique. It involves the separation of compounds using a thin layer of adsorbent material coated on a glass or plastic plate. TLC systems are compact and easy to use. They are often employed for quick qualitative analysis, identification of compounds, and purification processes. TLC is commonly used in pharmaceutical quality control, forensic analysis, and botanical identification.

In conclusion, chromatography instruments are indispensable tools in analytical science. High-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, and thin-layer chromatography systems are just a few examples of the diverse range of instruments utilized. These instruments enable scientists across various industries to analyze complex mixtures efficiently and obtain accurate results, thus driving advancements in research, quality control, and product development. Check out this post that has expounded on the topic: https://www.britannica.com/science/chromatography.

About The Chromatography

Chromatography septa is a procedure utilized to separate particles from a blend. It is additionally made use of in drugs to separate compounds that have a comparable molecular structure as well as is frequently utilized in analytical chemistry for the discovery of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) located in pesticides and oils. It is based upon the concept that the elements of a blend are smeared onto a solid or surface area and that a liquid fixed phase, which serves as a splitting up representative, divides them from each other. This splitting up is based on factors such as molecular qualities connected to adsorption, dividing, as well as fondness, as well as differences in their molecular weights. The separation takes place since the molecules in the combination have the ability to move in a different way via the fixed phase with the aid of a mobile phase, and also some components will certainly stay longer in the stable phase than others.

Because of this, some substances might be eluted more quickly than others, and the system will create a chromatogram that reveals the existence of each substance in the mix. There are a variety of different chromatography methods. Several of the most common are liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, and also high-performance fluid chromatography. The gas chromatography enables the elements of the blend to be divided immediately. It is typically furnished with a pump, a detector, and a computer system to collect as well as report data.

A vapor-tight chamber that allows observation of the development of the chromatographic run without opening the door or venting. The chamber is made from glass, porcelain, or stainless-steel and also has a rack to sustain the solvent troughs, antisiphon poles, and also chromatographic sheets. It includes a pump for the intro of an example right into the mobile phase, an injector that moves the example right into the column, as well as a detector that will produce a chromatogram of the compound being divided as it is gotten rid of from the column.

The chromatogram will certainly show a height for each analyte, which can be taped by the graph recorder. Some chromatography systems are designed to be automated and can run constantly with very little guidance, offering even more precise results. Various other chromatography systems are manually operated and need regular interaction between driver as well as reagents or example. Making use of chromatography has actually enhanced considerably for many years, as researchers have actually created approaches for dividing compounds in a range of ways. It can be made use of for a wide range of applications, including spotting infects in water, air as well as on surface areas. Along with dividing and also recognizing molecules, chromatography is likewise an approach of filtration. It can be used to get rid of impurities from services such as water, air, as well as food.

There are numerous types of chromatography, including ion exchange chromatography, which is made use of to different healthy proteins, enzymes, and pigments from a solution. This kind of chromatography has ended up being popular due to the fact that it is cost-effective and also easy to utilize. Various other kinds of chromatography include thin-layer chromatography and paper chromatography, which are not as usual however are still valuable in a selection of setups. As an example, plant pigments can be arranged by positioning them on an item of chromatography paper that has an appealing unfavorable fee. Check out this post for more details related to this article: https://www.britannica.com/science/chromatography.

Iris Publishers - World Journal of Agriculture and Soil Science (WJASS)

Remediation Methods of Crude Oil Contaminated Soil

Authored by Ding Xuezhi,

Crude oil is a quick and easily accessible source of energy, making our life comfortable and raising the standards of living. It can be found naturally in many parts of the world, particularly in the USA, Russia, Romania, Iran, Mexico, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Libya, and Nigeria [1]. The petroleum industries generate billion tons of crude oil, natural gas and its derivatives every year. All of these are then undergone further processing for the production of refined products such as diesel, gasoline, petrol and lubricants [2]. It is recorded by international energy agency that demand of oil all over the world in 2015 was 97 million barrels/day which is expected to be 100 million barrels/day up to 2021 [3].

Crude oil is composed of volatile liquid hydrocarbons with varying molecular weight and structure. It contains more than 17,000 hydrocarbons and its classification are based on the most prevalent compound present in it. The three main hydrocarbons components present in crude oil are compiled in Table 1 [4-6].

Crude oil contamination is one of the major environmental problems effecting aquatic and terrestrial environments. At present, approximately 80% of lands are affected by petroleum origin products i.e., hydrocarbons and these products are used in oil and chemical industries as energy source [7]. Crude oil makes a covering on the surface of soil and causes the retention of carbon dioxide produced by soil organisms. It also decreases the soil porosity by sticking the soil particles together. The amount of loss depends on the amount and grade of oil spilled [1].

Many accidental spillages of crude oil have threatened the nature. The largest accident in the history of mankind that caused environmental disaster is “Gulf war oil spill” (1991). This accident caused the spill of millions of gallons of crude oil from destroyed oil wells into the water and surrounding land covering 49 square km of an area [8]. Similarly, “Keystone pipeline accident” (2017) is another disaster of oil spillage. This spill caused the spread of 210,000 gallons of oil on the grass as well as in the agricultural area at southeast of the small town of Amherst in northeast South Dakota [9].

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) present in crude oil, declared as primary environmental pollutant by the United States Environmental Protection Agency are mutagenic and carcinogenic [10]. A prolonged contact time of stable PAH with soil stimulate the phenomenon called soil aging, leading to the resistant of soil to any treatment [11]. Leakage of these contaminants from the soil to the ground water can pose risk to human health, vegetation and biological environment [7]. So, it is very important to clean the soil from these harmful substances to guard life from their deadly effects. Besides, by remediating oil contaminated sites more land can be available for residence as well as agricultural activities.

Numerous countries are developing their own strategies to cope with the soil contamination done by crude oil e.g., Lebanon, Kuwait and some other middle east countries have organized oil spill working groups by the aid of environment research organizations for assessment and future remediation of the affected areas [2]. Numerous methods for the removal of crude oil from the contaminated soil have been devised. A quick, nature friendly and cost-effective method is required for this purpose. This review focuses on the current developments of some generally accepted remediation techniques used to treat crude oil contaminated soil.

Chemical Methods

Chemical oxidation is an efficient method to remove dangerous wastes from the soil at the oil spilled sites. The efficiency of this method strongly depends on the soil matrix. Fenton’s reagent, a mixture of Hydrogen peroxide and Ferric ion, is used for chemical oxidation. Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizing agent that generates hydroxyl ions during Fenton’s reaction while ferric ion acts as catalyst. Hydroxyl ions are very powerful and effective agents that destroy the contaminants present in the soil [12,13] demonstrated that removal of oil from sand at lower pH by using Fenton’s reagent is much efficient than at natural pH or peat.

Another efficient oxidant that is used for the removal of crude oil from soil is ozone. It is easy to generate, store and handle for in situ treatment. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are more reactive with ozone in comparison o alkanes. Reactivity of poly aromatic hydrocarbons depends on the number of rings, heteroatoms presence or absence and alkylation level. Ozone also support microbial community present in the soil as it generates oxygen on its degradation, so it can be helpful in bioremediation method to aid microbial growth [14]. Chemical method is a quick way to treat contaminated soil, but chemicals may pose a serious threat to the nearby soil and living beings due to leaching or side reactions.

Physical Methods

Excavation of crude oil contaminated soil is the quickest and safe way but not a sophisticated and cheap method. The contaminated soil is removed and transported to appropriate landfill for the disposal. The samples are collected from bottom and sidewalls of the excavated area to check if the site is clean or not [15-17].

Another physical method is the washing of contaminated soil. Washing with organic solvents such as ethanol- water mixture and ethyl acetate-acetone-water mixture exhibited significant removal of hydrocarbons from the contaminated soil [18-20]. Soil washing does not only treat the oil contaminated soil but also remove the heavy metals from the soil. The efficiency of washing can be enhanced by the addition of surfactants. Studies showed that both artificial and natural surfactants are helpful in the removal of crude oil. Different surfactants remove different fractions of crude oil e.g. artificial surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) removed aliphatic hydrocarbons while natural surfactants saponin and rhamnolipid removed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from the contaminated soil [21]. This method no doubt is simple and efficient, however, it is very prolonged, time consuming and very costly. Transportation of contaminated soil to disposal site is another big problem. Surfactants might be dangerous due to their possibility of adhesion to soil particles.

Thermal Methods

In Thermal stripping/low temperature thermal desorption/soil roasting contaminated soil is heated to very low temperature (200- 1000 °F) to increase the vaporization and separation of low boiling point contaminants from the soil. By this process organic contaminants can be completely or partially decomposed depending upon the thermal stripping temperature and organic compounds present in the soil. [22]. This method can remove approximately 90% of the contaminants but it is very costly and not eco-friendly.

Another way to remove crude oil from the soil is incineration. The contaminated soil is burned by using fire at high temperature (1600-2500 °F) [1]. This method is also not environmentally friendly as volatile and flammable compounds present in crude oil will cause the environment pollution.

Biological Methods

Bioremediation is a traditional method that involves the use of living organisms (bacteria, fungi and plants) to degrade harmful substances present in the environment. Bioremediation of crude oil from the soil is very efficient, cheap and environmentally friendly solution. The effectiveness of this method is depended on hydrocarbon concentration, soil characteristics and composition of pollutants [8].

PAH are the most resistant and toxic group of soil pollutants present in the crude oil. PAH get trapped in the soil pores after they enter into the soil and retained by the soil matrix. So, their removal from the soil is very difficult [23]. Bioremediation is the most suitable method to remove PAH from the soil as microbes and plant roots can access these tiny pores easily.

Microbe assisted remediation

Soil is a diverse ecosystem as it inhabits various microbial populations. The composition of naturally residing microbes change with the composition and concentration of contaminants, so only resistant consortium of microbes survives and work actively in the cleaning of polluted soil [24]. Hydrocarbon degrading microbes are extensively present naturally in the contaminated soil and breakdown complex hydrocarbons into simple form by the use of their enzymatic systems.

Different bacterial genera chose different types of hydrocarbons for the degradation (Table 2) and they can also work in both aerobic and anaerobic condition. In anaerobic condition, bacteria present in the deepest parts of the sediments use nitrates, sulfates and iron as electron acceptor to degrade the hydrocarbons. Some of the species of anaerobic bacteria belonging to genus Desulfococcus, Thauera, Dechloromonas and Azoarcus exhibit hydrocarbon degradation ability [25-26].

While in aerobic condition, bacterial dioxygenase enzymes incorporate oxygen into carbon molecule through a series of enzyme catalyzed reactions to generate hydrocarbon with alcohol group. Alcohol groups are oxidized to aldehyde and then converted into carboxylic group by the action of other enzymes which in turn is degraded to acetyl co-A by beta oxidation [27].

The major bacterial genera that showed crude oil degrading capability are Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Nocardia, Acinetobacter, Micrococcus, Achromobacter, Rhodococcus, Alcaligenes, Moraxella, Mycobacterium, Aeromonas, Xanthomonas, Athrobacter, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, zospirillum [1, 2,8,27- 30].

Fungal mycelium is very helpful in the degradation of hydrocarbons because of their penetration ability, it also aids in the entrance of bacteria to the deep soil. Fungal laccase, lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase enzymes degrade the hydrocarbons by its oxidation [31]. Crude oil degradation has been shown by some members of the following fungal genera: Candida, Stropharia, Rhodotorula, Pleurotus, Penicillium, Phanerochaete, Fusarium [8, 14, 32,27].

Microbial remediation of contaminated soil is affected by many factors such as water amount, temperature and pH of soil, concentration of oxygen, soil quality and amount of nutrients. Change in any of these factors can decrease the population of microbes and in turn decreases the bioremediation [33].

Microbial activity can be accelerated by using bioaugmentation and bio stimulation strategies. In bioaugmentation exogenous oil degrading bacteria are supplemented to enhance soil microbiota while in bio stimulation addition of nutrients, aeration and optimization of physical conditions like pH and temperature is performed. Research has shown that bioaugmentation and bio stimulation when used together effectively remediate crude oil hydrocarbons polluted soil. It has been observed that the number of exogenous bacteria decreases after sometimes because of nutrient unavailability or other abiotic factors (pH, temperature or oxygen). So, bio stimulation incorporation with bioaugmentation provided effective results in the degradation of crude oil pollutants (Figure 1) [1,23,30,34-36]. Different types of surfactants produced by many microorganisms are called biosurfactants. These biosurfactants enhance the bioavailability of hydrocarbons to the microbes and in turn increases its degradation. Use of biosurfactants producing microbes is a good bioremediation choice as this process is cheap, nontoxic with efficient degradation rate. So, researchers have turned their focus towards such microbes that can degrade crude oil and produces biosurfactants at the same time [37].

Phytoremediation

Phytoremediation is an effective, solar driven and low-cost strategy that uses plants for the removal of contaminants from the soil of large contaminated area. Plants have the ability to grow in polluted soil by metabolizing or accumulating the harmful compounds in their roots or shoots [45].

Plants with extended root systems, minimum water requirement, adaptability to a variety of environmental conditions and fast growth rate are appropriate for this purpose [46]. Phytoremediation efficiency depends on the plant species selection, environmental conditions and rhizobacteria [47].

Analysis of soil of the Possession Island after diesel leakage in 1997 showed that area with vegetation has 10% low concentration of hydrocarbons as compared to non-vegetation area [48].

Different mechanisms are devised by plants for the removal of contaminants i.e., phytoaccumulation (absorption of contaminants into the roots or shoots), phytodegradation (degradation of pollutants by utilization of plant enzymes such as laccase, oxygenase and nitroreductase), phytovolatization (release of volatile metabolites into the atmosphere) and phytostabilization (decrease the movement of contaminants) [11,49,50] reported that two plant species i.e., Eleusine indica and Cynodon dactylon significantly eliminated some low to medium molecular weight PAH from the soil by phytoextraction process, indicating their use in the removal of PAH.

Maize plants showed enhanced biodegradation in association with Cynanchum laeve. This symbiotic relationship between maize roots and Cynanchum laeve degraded 4-6 rings PAH more efficiently than any other treatment [11].

Vetiver grass, belongs to the Poaceae family, is a perennial grass. It decontaminates the soil by extraction of PAH and other toxins from the soil and accumulating it in the roots and shoots. This plant showed negative effect on its growth and other physical activities when grown on soil contaminated with diesel [51] Mirabilis jalapa, is also considered a good candidate for phytoremediation. [52] investigated that M. jalapa can remove 41-63% of saturated hydrocarbons within 127 days when compared with natural attenuation process (Figure 2).

Similarly, ryegrass, alfalfa, tall fescue, prairie grasses, meadow fescue, yellow medick, soybeans, Gazania, Mimosa pudica, Cyperus rotundus have shown good crude oil remediation [53-60].

With all the advantages, phytoremediation also has some drawbacks i.e., it is a time-consuming process, limited remediation in high pollutants concentration and limited area of success [47].

Rhizoremediation (Plant-microbe assisted remediation- recent technology)

Rhizoremediation requires such plants that can grow in oil contaminated soil and also provide favorable environment to contaminants degrading microbes by exudates secretion or aeration. Plant-microbe strategy not only increases the metabolic activity of rhizosphere microbes, but it also improves the soil physical and chemical properties and increases microbial access to the contaminants present in the soil [56].

PAH degrading bacterial strain Rhodococcus ruber Em1 showed enhanced degradation rate when combined with Orychophragmus violaceus during the period of 175 days in a controlled environment (mesocosms). The expressions of linA and RHD like genes, coding PAH-ring hydroxylating dioxygenase, increase 3-5 times in the mesocosoms [42]. Enhanced degradation of contaminants by maize plant was observed when maize plant was provided with indigenous microbial biomass inoculum [61].

Glycine max (Soybean) plant is among those plants that exhibit hydrocarbon remediating capability. Research showed that soybean remediation of crude oil was not because of the phytoaccumulation but it was a mutual action of G. max and rhizospheric microbes. It was observed that Glycine max growth in the contaminated soil effect the total number of bacteria, amount of water, pH and organic matter quantity [62].

A study conducted on wheat plant in hydroponics condition showed that wheat seedlings eliminate more than 20% of oil from the medium, but this remediating ability enhances to 29% when grown in association with Azospirillum [63].

Bioremediation of oil contaminated soil by using yellow alfalfa in combination with Acinetobacter sp. strain S- 33 improved the remediation efficiency 39% in comparison to alone alfalfa (34%) and Acinetobacter sp. S-33 (35%). Fractional Contaminants analysis showed that plant microbe association is the most efficient strategy in the cleanup of aromatic hydrocarbons from the soil [63].

Plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPR) promote the tolerance and resistance of plants against contaminants present in the soil. Ryegrass when grown with PGPR showed increased degradation of hydrocarbons to 61.5% for 3 years when 13% TPH content was used. It was observed that low concentration enhanced the degradation and vice versa [3,64].

Crude oil after leakage gets trapped or physically bound with the soil particles; access to these micro spaces is made possible by plant roots. Roots of plants harbor microbes in the rhizosphere as well as on the surface. So, root generates a pathway for these microbes to have access to these contaminants. Once in the soil micropores, GPR increases the solubility of oil droplets by producing biosurfactants or by adhering to the surface of the oil droplets. Microbial surface membrane oxygenase’s than generate fatty acid analogues by adding oxygen atoms into PHC. In this way microbes keep on growing and degrading contaminants. Tentatively, microbes use 150mg of nitrogen and 30mg of potassium to degrade 1g of PHC [65]. Utilization of plants and microbes in collaboration is indeed a good strategy to recovery contaminated soil. It might be a long process, but it is safer and environment friendly. Further field experiments must be performed to develop good models.

Conclusion

Crude oil is a quick and easily accessible energy source found in most of the countries. Its leakage during extraction and transportation has posed danger to the environment because it contains mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds. Soil contamination due to crude oil leakage has adverse effects on human and vegetation growth so its removal is essential. Many methods have been developed to remove crude oil from the soil i.e., physical, chemical, thermal and biological. Many alterations and development have been introduced in Physio-chemical and thermal methods to enhance their efficiency and reduce their demerits. Still these methods have many drawbacks and less acceptable by the society. On the other hand, bioremediation methods are preferred because they are efficient, cheap and nature friendly. In the recent technology i.e., rhizoremediation, microbes and plants are combined together in synergistic relationship to efficiently remove the crude oil contaminants from the soil. Research has shown that rhizoremediation is more efficient than microbial and phytoremediation techniques separately.

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Ignite (Redux); Ch. 1 of 5ish

Pairings: Kylo Ren x Reader

Genre/Ratings: currently T for severely injured reader 

Words: 2250

Summary: After an accident aboard Starkiller Base, someone unexpected proves invaluable.

This is a rewrite of Ignite, which I published two-ish years ago. I thought I could put more into it than I did initially, and soon enough this one chapter was more words than the whole original idea. Same story, incredibly expanded upon. Enjoy!

You sigh as you scroll through your daily schedule that’s pinged into your datapad. Apparently a fresh crop of newbie engineers has been recruited, and now you’ve got to teach them how to not blow themselves up- or more crucially, not blow up the expensive TIE Fighters that cost more than your entire life is worth. Joy oh joy. Really, you prefer to work alone- you’re a senior engineer aboard Starkiller base, you don’t need anyone to double check your work (or worse, mucking it up). But as long as the rookie knows their place and doesn’t cross wires they aren’t supposed to, things should- should- be okay.

Hopefully. Maybe. Fingers crossed.

You pull on your uniform, doing up the buttons and fastening the buckles; your tool belt, a beautiful piece of leather that’s been worn enough to be molded precisely to your waist, gets secured in its place of honor across your hips. After tracking down your pesky gloves and tucking them into the top of your work boots so you don’t lose them for the millionth time, you join the ebb and flow of traffic constantly racing though Starkiller’s veins and head for the flight deck.

It’s a decent trek- base is huge, and nowhere you’re heading is ever anywhere near everywhere else. It’s become something of a tradition to mentally curse whoever designed this bucket of bolts as you follow hallway after hallway, trying to keep pace with those around you. Would it have killed them to put in some moving walkways? Maybe a more direct path through the ducts? At least that way you’d be able to avoid all the upper-crust officers on your way to work, and their holier-than-thou stares as they eye your patched elbows and stained pants. Chuckling to yourself, you pat the nearest metal archway, mentally apologizing to your pride and joy. Starkiller is, ultimately, a feat of engineering, and the fact that you get to crawl around in her walls and find what makes her tic is a pleasure, no matter how finicky she gets- or how snotty the officers become.

In the corner of your eye, you can tell that the corridor has suddenly emptied, startlingly silent of stormtrooper boots or the quiet mumbling of messengers running to and fro. Rather than following suit and making yourself scarce, you purposefully slow your gait and linger, letting your fingers trace along the seams of the polished walls.

Not a minute later, Kylo Ren comes stalking around the corner, boots thumping menacingly along his path and cape fluttering behind him. He doesn’t seem phased by the sudden clearing of his path- he probably comes to expect it by now. It’s not like he demands it; people just seem too frightened of the Commander to even do something as simple as walk in the same corridor as him.

You can’t really blame them. He’s a six-foot-something space wizard in all black and an incredibly intimidating mask. Rumor has it he isn’t afraid to cut you in half with a lightsaber if you so much as breathe wrong in his direction- and to be fair, a lot of those rumors are true, given how frequently you’re called to patch up medical equipment in the infirmary.

“Am I interrupting something?” The Commander’s voice comes out heavily synthesized through his visor, but you could swear there’s a touch of teasing in it as he watches you run a hand over some welding.

You grin at him. “No, sir, just having a little moment of appreciation.” You comically pat the metal next to you, as though assessing a prize cow.

Normally you wouldn’t dare joke around with a senior officer, but despite his fearful reputation, the Knight has always seemed… different, to you. In command, yes, but not quite part of command. The rest of base always runs whenever he heads in their direction. Even his infamous Knights of Ren seem just a touch too cautious around their leader to include him in the camaraderie you’ve seen them demonstrate in the mess hall when he’s not around. He’s a true loner, sitting solitaire in meetings and speaking to no one except to yell orders; a black phantom haunting the hallways with rumors flying left and right in his wake.

You made the decision a long time ago to not be afraid of the man. He has to know that not everyone sees him as some sort of grim reaper, no matter what people might whisper. “How are you today, sir?”

Despite you making it a point to ask him this every time you see him, he still seems taken aback whenever he hears it. Like he’s shocked someone is speaking to him in pleasant terms. “I am fine. And you?”

“Just peachy!” You gesture down the hallway. “Are you going this way?”

He nods briefly, and so the two of you start off together, only close enough to barely be associated as acquaintances. The stares you get are numerous, but you always feel just a tad more confident with the Commander at your side. You suppose it must look a bit comical- the dark knight and a tiny engineer marching through base like they own the place. But you’re grateful for the company, silent as it is, and you tell yourself he must be too- otherwise, why give you the time of day? You’re not anyone important.

You know Commandeer Ren notices all the attention the two of you get- you can tell by the way he has to keep his fists from clenching up; struggle to keep his gait even. Briefly, you wonder if the reason he wears a mask is so his emotions won’t run amok across his face. It’s certainly easy enough to read the rest of him, if you bother looking.

“Are you not afraid of me?”

You stop short, surprised. Even when he seems to be in a good mood, he rarely says anything. “No sir, I’m not. Should I be?”

“Yes,” he says flatly. Just, yes, as though that’s the only possible answer to his question.

“Well… just don’t come at me with your fancy glowstick, and I think we’ll be alright, yeah?” You offer him an easy grin, instinctively reaching out to tap him playfully on the shoulder before you remember who you’re talking to- it quickly gets withdrawn. He simply stares at you, and you’re unsure if you’ve just doomed yourself to a cold and miserable fate on Hoth. “I’ll see you later?”

He just turns and stalks away, and you sigh, shoving your hands in your pockets. He never answers that one. Which, to be fair, he probably has much more important things to do than run around entertaining some random engineer. Still, he never blows you off though, even when you’re rambling or asking too many questions- he might not answer the questions, but he doesn’t tell you to shut up either.

Truth is, you’re a bit fascinated with the man. He’s an enigma, a mystery, and your whole life you’ve been trained to solve mysteries; pull out the broken pieces and wind it all back together again even better than the day it was brand new. You can only hope someday that helmet of his will short circuit and you’ll get a chance to take a crack at it.

You have to pull yourself away from watching Ren’s retreating back, refocusing on your job. Rookie to train. TIE Fighters to tune up. Right.

It’s pretty easy to spot your trainee- he’s tentatively poking around a TIE the way you do when you want to look like you know what you’re doing, but in actuality you’re three seconds away from seriously messing something up. When he gnaws his lip and reaches for a panel of circuitry, you step in- “OKAY! Let’s back away from that, shall we?”

Startled, he knocks himself away from the board he’s studying. “Right! Right. Uh, sorry.”

You gingerly close the panel back up and push him a few steps away from the battleship, then wipe your hands on your pants and hold out a hand. “I’m Y/N. I’ll be your supervisor for the day. Rule number one? Don’t touch anything unless you know for certain what it is, what’s wrong with it, how to fix it, and all the ways it can kill you if your finger slips.”

The kid’s cheeks pale a bit. “Right. I’m Cale.”

“Wonderful. Don’t blow anybody up and don’t put our heads under the general’s fist, and I’m sure we’ll get along great.” You tug on your gloves, tighten the cord securing your hair, and put a hand on your hip. “First thing’s first- how much do you know about twin ion engine ships?”

You spend the better part of your shift going over every inch of the craft in front of you, as well as the science that makes it run and the parts that need hands on them more often than not. “…and this is the engine itself. It destabilizes xenon gas and uses the resulting broken-off electron for thrust. Xenon gas is ideal because for the most part, it’s completely inert- fireproof, explosion-proof, etcetera. As long as it’s converted back to a stable state before it’s exuded by the engine, it’s pretty safe. But you should still be extremely cautious when working on the engine itself. Obviously. It’s worth more than we ever will be.” You press your wrist to your forehead, trying to think of anything you missed. “Okay. Any questions?”

“…No?”

“Cool.” You check your datapad. “This one needs new electrostatic grids. Xenon gas is fairly corrosive. Check with me before you do anything, and we’ll get to work, okay?”

Other than the occasional question here and there and getting used to someone hanging over your shoulder watching you tinker, you settle into a wonderfully familiar routine. Your fingers fly like they have a mind of their own, effortlessly making the rig in front of you shine like it did when it first came off the line.

“-so what do you do here, anyways?”

You shake your head, pulled from the flow of work- “um, little bit of everything? I got promoted to senior a few years ago so I’m called all over base. I work a lot with command and their personal rigs and equipment.”

You can’t see Cale’s face, but you can hear the curiosity in his voice. “You work with General Hux?”

“Yes. He’s just as…intense, as everyone makes him out to be. But thus far I’m not on his bad side and I plan to keep it that way, so I’m not saying anything else about it.”

“What about-” he pauses, like he’s looking over his shoulder to make sure no one else in the massively busy hangar is listening in- “Kylo Ren?”

You wedge a particularly tight support into place with a grunt. “What about him?”

“Is he really insane? I heard that-”

“No,” you say harshly. “And you shouldn’t believe everything you hear. He’s a person, just like everyone else, okay?” Christ, the rumor mill is as exhausting as it is useless.

Thankfully, something on your tool belt starts beeping and you can focus on that. A little indicator light is flashing orange, harsh and neon. “Interesting.”

Cale pops his head out from underneath the ship. “What’s beeping?”

“This monitors the air quality; lets us know if the composition of gases gets unbalanced. It generally means there’s a leak somewhere.” You glance at what you’d doing. More electrostatic grids. “What are you working on down there?”

“Oh, a few tanks were too pressurized, so I released the valves a bit to relieve those.”

You blanch. “The xenon canisters?”

“Um… maybe?”

Fuckfuckfuckfuckfuck. Just before you can hit the alarm button, you see a spark from a nearby welder flicker- it arcs to the floor almost in slow motion, one small bit of fire promising catastrophe. If you’re lucky, it won’t catch- it will fall harmlessly to the floor and extinguish, giving you time to alert others, clear the area, and reset things when proper ventilation has made the area safe.

But when have you ever been lucky?

All you see is red. You’re awash in it, swimming in it, drowning until your whole being is nothing but scarlet and an unholy, white-hot, supernova blue. You’re in the heart of an exploding star, witnessing the birth of the universe, and it’s just as beautiful as you’d imagine the very atoms of space rearranging themselves would be.

Then there’s stillness. The colors fade. It’s not silent- no, there’s a ringing in your ears, and somewhere very, very far away something like an alarm. And then- pain.

Oh, the pain. It flashes through your nerves like lightning, so intense you almost can’t comprehend all the little nuances screaming across every inch of your body. Joining the ringing and the far, distant sound of klaxon alarms comes a high-pitched, desperate sort of scream. You turn to help whoever it is- you raise a hand in front of you, only to see rapidly singing flesh. It’s you. You’re the one screaming. You’re the one on fire.

Sprawled on the floor of the hangar, vaguely aware of everything and nothing, hoarsely begging for this to stop, stopstopstop please make this stop, you wonder just for one second if the tall cloaked figure at the other end of the room is a hallucination or wish fulfillment or both.

You lose consciousness before you can come to a decision.

A/N: Yee

GATE Life Science Question Paper, Exam Pattern, Mock Test, MCQ

GATE Life Science Question Paper, Exam Pattern, Mock Test, MCQ The Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering is an examination that primarily tests the comprehensive understanding of various undergraduate subjects in engineering and science for admission into the Masters Program of institutes as well as jobs at Public Sector Companies. GATE Life Science Question Paper and MCQs Buy the question bank or online quiz of GATE Life Science Exam Going through the GATE Life Science Exam Question Bank is a must for aspirants to both understand the exam structure as well as be well prepared to attempt the exam. The first step towards both preparation as well as revision is to practice from GATE Life Science Exam with the help of Question Bank or Online quiz. We will provide you the questions with detailed answer. GATE Life Science Question Paper and MCQs : Available Now GATE Life Science Mock Test Crack GATE Life Science Recruitment exam with the help of online mock test Series or Free Mock Test. Every Sample Paper in GATE Life Science Exam has a designated weightage so do not miss out any Paper. Prepare and Practice Mock for GATE Life Science exam and check your test scores. You can get an experience by doing the Free Online Test or Sample Paper of GATE Life Science Exam. Free Mock Test will help you to analysis your performance in the Examination. GATE Life Science Mock Test : Available Now GATE Life Science Syllabus 1. Chemistry (Compulsory) : Atomic structure and periodicity: Planck’s quantum theory, wave particle duality, uncertainty principle, quantum mechanical model of hydrogen atom, electronic configuration of atoms and ions. Periodic table and periodic properties: ionization energy, electron affinity, electronegativity and atomic size. Structure and bonding: Ionic and covalent bonding, MO and VB approaches for diatomic molecules, VSEPR theory and shape of molecules, hybridization, resonance, dipole moment, structure parameters such as bond length, bond angle and bond energy, hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions. Ionic solids, ionic radii and lattice energy (Born‐Haber cycle). HSAB principle. s.p. and d Block Elements: Oxides, halides and hydrides of alkali, alkaline earth metals, B, Al, Si, N, P, and S. General characteristics of 3d elements. Coordination complexes: valence bond and crystal field theory, color, geometry, magnetic properties and isomerism. Chemical Equilibria: Colligative properties of solutions, ionic equilibria in solution, solubility product, common ion effect, hydrolysis of salts, pH, buffer and their applications. Equilibrium constants (Kc, Kp and Kx) for homogeneous reactions. Electrochemistry: Conductance, Kohlrausch law, cell potentials, emf, Nernst equation, Galvanic cells, thermodynamic aspects and their applications. Reaction Kinetics: Rate constant, order of reaction, molecularity, activation energy, zero, first and second order kinetics, catalysis and elementary enzyme reactions. Thermodynamics: First law, reversible and irreversible processes, internal energy, enthalpy, Kirchoff equation, heat of reaction, Hess’s law, heat of formation. Second law, entropy, free energy and work function. Gibbs‐Helmholtz equation, Clausius‐Clapeyron equation, free energy change, equilibrium constant and Trouton’s rule. Third law of thermodynamics Plant Pathology: Nature and classification of plant diseases, diseases of important crops caused by fungi, bacteria,nematodes and viruses, and their control measures, mechanism(s) of pathogenesis and resistance, molecular detection of pathogens; plant-microbe beneficial interactions. Ecology and Environment: Ecosystems – types, dynamics, degradation, ecological succession; food chains and energy flow; vegetation types of the world, pollution and global warming, speciation and extinction, conservation strategies, cryopreservation, phytoremediation. 3. Microbiology Historical Perspective: Discovery of microbial world; Landmark discoveries relevant to the field of microbiology; Controversy over spontaneous generation; Role of microorganisms in transformation of organic matter and in the causation of diseases. Methods in Microbiology: Pure culture techniques; Theory and practice of sterilization; Principles of microbial nutrition; Enrichment culture techniques for isolation of microorganisms; Light-, phase contrast- and electron-microscopy. Microbial Taxonomy and Diversity: Bacteria, Archea and their broad classification; Eukaryotic microbes: Yeasts, molds and protozoa; Viruses and their classification; Molecular approaches to microbial taxonomy. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: Structure and Function: Prokaryotic Cells: cell walls, cell membranes, mechanisms of solute transport across membranes, Flagella and Pili, Capsules, Cell inclusions like endospores and gas vesicles; Eukaryotic cell organelles: Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Microbial Growth: Definition of growth; Growth curve; Mathematical expression of exponential growth phase; Measurement of growth and growth yields; Synchronous growth; Continuous culture; Effect of environmental factors on growth. Control of Micro-organisms: Effect of physical and chemical agents; Evaluation of effectiveness of antimicrobial agents. Microbial Metabolism: Energetics: redox reactions and electron carriers; An overview of metabolism; Glycolysis; Pentose-phosphate pathway; Entner-Doudoroff pathway; Glyoxalate pathway; The citric acid cycle; Fermentation; Aerobic and anaerobic respiration; Chemolithotrophy; Photosynthesis; Calvin cycle; Biosynthetic pathway for fatty acids synthesis; Common regulatory mechanisms in synthesis of amino acids; Regulation of major metabolic pathways. Microbial Diseases and Host Pathogen Interaction: Normal microbiota; Classification of infectious diseases; Reservoirs of infection; Nosocomial infection; Emerging infectious diseases; Mechanism of microbial pathogenicity; Nonspecific defense of host; Antigens and antibodies; Humoral and cell mediated immunity; Vaccines; Immune deficiency; Human diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, and pathogenic fungi. Chemotherapy/Antibiotics: General characteristics of antimicrobial drugs; Antibiotics: Classification, mode of action and resistance; Antifungal and antiviral drugs. Microbial Genetics: Types of mutation; UV and chemical mutagens; Selection of mutants; Ames test for mutagenesis; Bacterial genetic system: transformation, conjugation, transduction, recombination, plasmids, transposons; DNA repair; Regulation of gene expression: repression and induction; Operon model; Bacterial genome with special reference to E.coli; Phage λ and its life cycle; RNA phages; RNA viruses; Retroviruses; Basic concept of microbial genomics. Microbial Ecology: Microbial interactions; Carbon, sulphur and nitrogen cycles; Soil microorganisms associated with vascular plants. 4. Zoology Animal world: Animal diversity, distribution, systematics and classification of animals, phylogenetic relationships. Evolution: Origin and history of life on earth, theories of evolution, natural selection, adaptation, speciation. Genetics: Basic Principles of inheritance, molecular basis of heredity, sex determination and sex-linked characteristics, cytoplasmic inheritance, linkage, recombination and mapping of genes in eukaryotes, population genetics. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology: Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates; replication, transcription and translation; regulation of gene expression, organization of genome, Kreb’s cycle, glycolysis, enzyme catalysis, hormones and their actions, vitamins Cell Biology: Structure of cell, cellular organelles and their structure and function, cell cycle, cell division, chromosomes and chromatin structure. Gene expression in Eukaryotes : Eukaryotic gene organization and expression (Basic principles of signal transduction). Animal Anatomy and Physiology: Comparative physiology, the respiratory system, circulatory system, digestive system, the nervous system, the excretory system, the endocrine system, the reproductive system, the skeletal system, osmoregulation. Parasitology and Immunology: Nature of parasite, host-parasite relation, protozoan and helminthic parasites, the immune response, cellular and humoral immune response, evolution of the immune system. Development Biology: Embryonic development, cellular differentiation, organogenesis, metamorphosis, genetic basis of development, stem cells. Ecology: The ecosystem, habitats, the food chain, population dynamics, species diversity, zoogerography, biogeochemical cycles, conservation biology. Animal Behaviour: Types of behaviours, courtship, mating and territoriality, instinct, learning and memory, social behaviour across the animal taxa, communication, pheromones, evolution of animal behaviour. GATE 2021 LX Exam Pattern Duration : 180 Mint Negative Mark : 0.66 SectionNo. of QuestionsMarksMarks/QuestionsTotal Marks General Aptitude5 55 51 25 10 Technical, Engineering, Mathematics25 3025 301 225 60 Total65  100

Debunking health-related IG posts

Post One:

The whole portrayal of this image is wrong; the body is efficient at ‘cleansing’ by itself. The liver is the body���s detoxification system and as such any product or food claiming to ‘detoxify’ or cleanse your system is unfortunately exaggerating its abilities. The symptoms the image is describing are common for those with a generally unhealthy diet, whilst some have no scientific backing whatsoever. 

The sugar cravings are most likely attributed to high sugar and low-fibre foods that are not slow-release, whilst belly fat is due to an overconsumption of calories (all adipose tissue acts as stores for excess sugar). 

Bloating and gas can come from a diet with little fruit and veg- this means low dietary fibre as well as poor gut flora which help absorb nutrients from food, causing gut problems.

There is no scientifically proven link between diet and skin condition (although if a certain diet or avoidance of foods work for you, stick with it!).

Low energy, again a claim from eating fast-release carbohydrates.

Overly sugary foods and liquids can cause bad breath (NHS, 2019).

Constipation is again due to a low fibre diet; insoluble carbohydrates such as cellulose act as roughage which aid peristalsis (rhythmic contraction of the gut).

Certain energy restrictive diets can improve cognitive function, but no paper I could find linked diet with mood (Brinkworth, Buckley, Noakes et al).

Post Two:

Again, another mysterious claim of ‘detox’. This one comes from a specific chemical in apples, mainly Phlorizidin. This is a drug that helps lower blood sugar concentrations and was previously considered as a treatment for Type 2 diabetes (the drug, not a diet of apples). However, this drug is inefficient at lowering blood sugar and better alternatives have been found.

There seems to be a common belief in pseudo-science that bile lets the liver excrete toxic or ‘bad’ substances; in all my studies there is no literature to support this, bile aids in digestion and is an alkaline mixture rich in bicarbonate ions to neutralise acidic chyme once it enters the duodenum. All excretion is facilitated by the kidneys, which essentially act as a filter for the blood.

Post Three:

There is some credence for celery juice’s ability to boost your immune system’s function due to its rich source of vitamins, particularly vitamin C which supports your immune by increasing the cellular processes of the cells that run it (Carr, Magini, 2017), but to say it removes ‘viral waste’ is ridiculous to say the least. Despite viral waste not even being a legitimate medical term, viral debris from destroyed cells will be removed by phagocytosis; white blood cells (phagocytes) engulf the cell, destroy it and absorb the remains.

Furthermore, common viruses such as the Flu are Pyro viruses, meaning they increase your body’s temperature. This is because your hypothalamus increases its ‘set point’ (the core body temperature) to kill the virus off. There is no scientific evidence to significantly suggest that celery juice aids this.

All in all this post is incredibly misleading.

Post Four:

The literature on this is extremely mixed, with some studies reporting inconclusive results and others reporting effects in contextual memories. All studies agree certain odours activate specific context-dependent memories (meaning there is no inclination to suggest that just because you’ve been sniffing rosemary you’re going to remember Avagadro’s number). All in all, there’s not enough scientific literature to draw a conclusion, and I have no clue where the author got their “75%” from.

I’ll reference a prominent paper on this below, but again this post is extremely misleading (Ball, Shoker, Miles. 2010).

Conclusion:

In summary, take IG posts with a pinch of salt! Medical facts are stretched or even falsified to create a satiating quote that we all wish to believe, of which the avid science student will often roll their eyes and scoff at. Before changing your diet and lifestyle, always consult a healthcare professional before doing so.

Note: If any information is factually incorrect please privately inform me with some scientific support and I will always correct my work- we could all learn a little more! However I do fact check to the best of my ability using accredited journals and studies published by the scientific community. I will not be naming the authors; my intent is to shame no one, but to inform the general public about evidence-driven science.

References:

Brinkworth GD, Buckley JD, Noakes M, Clifton PM, Wilson CJ. (2009) Long-term Effects of a Very Low-Carbohydrate Diet and a Low-Fat Diet on Mood and Cognitive Function. Arch Intern Med. 169(20):1873–1880

Ball, L.J. Shoker, J. Miles, N.V. (2010) Odour‐based context reinstatement effects with indirect measures of memory: The curious case of rosemary. British Journal of Psychology. 101 (4).

Carr, A.C. Magini, S. (2017) Vitamin C and Immune Function. Nutrients. 3;9 (11).

NHS, (2019). Bad Breath. [online] Available from: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Bad-breath/ [30/12/2019]

Electric blue thrusters propelling BepiColombo to Mercury

ESA - BepiColombo Mission patch. 16 November 2018 In mid-December, twin discs will begin glowing blue on the underside of a minibus-sized spacecraft in deep space. At that moment Europe and Japan’s BepiColombo mission will have just come a crucial step closer to Mercury. This week sees the in-flight commissioning and test firing of the four thrusters – with one or two firing at a time – of the Solar Electric Propulsion System that BepiColombo relies on to reach the innermost planet. This marks the first in-flight operation of the most powerful and highest-performance electric propulsion system flown on any space mission to date.

Twin ion thrusters firing

Each thruster and its associated power processing and propellant flow control units will be tested to full power to check no ill-effects were incurred from launch, culminating in the first twin thruster operations – the configuration to be used throughout most of the mission. Their first routine firing is scheduled for the middle of next month, and the propulsion system will operate continuously for three months to optimise the spacecraft’s trajectory for the long voyage to Mercury. The voyage inward BepiColombo, launched from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana on 20 October, faces a different challenge from ESA planetary science missions before it: it is headed inward, toward the Sun, not out, and needs to lose velocity instead of gaining it.

Animation visualising BepiColombo’s journey to Mercury

Like all objects in the Solar System, the spacecraft is in solar orbit, moving perpendicular to the pull of the Sun’s gravity. BepiColombo therefore has to slow down through a series of braking manoeuvres and flybys, making it more susceptible to the Sun’s gravity and letting it spiral closer to the heart of the Solar System. The thrust produced by the electric propulsion system serves to decelerate the spacecraft, or in some cases accelerates it to make its braking flybys more effective. No less than nine planetary flybys of Earth (once), Venus (twice) and Mercury itself (six times) are required to place the multi-module spacecraft in orbit around Mercury in seven years’ time. Space tug The Mercury Transfer Module portion of the spacecraft, containing the propulsion system, is in essence a high performance ‘space tug’. Its task is to perform all the active trajectory control manoeuvres needed to convey the other portions of the BepiColombo ‘stack’ – ESA’s Mercury Planet Orbiter and Japan’s Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter – to Mercury orbit.

Thrusters firing on BepiColombo

The high performance of the propulsion system, in terms of the amount of fuel the thrusters require, is critical. Inert xenon gas is fed in to the thrusters, where electrons are first stripped off the xenon atoms. The resulting electrically charged atoms, referred to as ions, are then focused and ejected out of the thrusters using a high voltage grid system at a velocity of 50 000 meters per second.

This exhaust velocity is 15 times greater than conventional chemical rocket thrusters, allowing a dramatic reduction in the amount of propellant required to achieve the mission. “The propulsion system transforms electricity generated by the Mercury Transfer Module’s twin 15 m-long solar arrays into thrust,” explains ESA electric propulsion engineer Neil Wallace.

MTM at base of BepiColombo

“At full power, a thrust equivalent to the weight of three 1-euro coins is developed, meaning that the thrusters have to keep firing for long periods to be effective, but in the absence of any drag and assuming you are patient, the manoeuvres that are possible and the payload that can be carried are dramatic.” Electrifying spacecraft propulsion The four T6 thrusters around which the solar electric propulsion system is designed, have a heritage dating back decades. QinetiQ in the UK – formerly the UK Defence Evaluation and Research Agency and before that the Farnborough Royal Aircraft Establishment – has been researching electric propulsion since the 1960s. The first flight of their technology came with the 10 cm-diameter T5 thruster, a key element of ESA’s 2009 gravity-mapping GOCE mission, where it allowed the satellite to orbit at the top of Earth’s atmosphere for over three years, skimming through the diffuse atmosphere at the unprecedentedly low orbital altitude needed for the mission.

T6 test firing

The scaled-up T6 thrusters are 22 cm in diameter, the increase in size required for the higher thrust and lifetime requirements of the BepiColombo mission. And unlike GOCE’s T5, these T6 thrusters are manoeuverable, courtesy of gimbal systems developed by RUAG Space in Austria. “They are clever mechanisms that complicate the system design a bit – all the electrical cables and pipes have to cross a moving boundary – but add a lot to performance,” adds Neil. “They ensure the thrust vector of either a single or double engine firing crosses through the centre of gravity of the spacecraft, which changes over time as propellant is used up.”

Thruster steering test

Thruster operations are controlled using two Power Processing Units, the architecture of which are designed to support the firing of two T6s simultaneously even in the event of any system anomaly, guaranteeing the maximum thrust of 250 mN can be maintained. Injecting intelligence “The intelligence of the system for autonomous thruster operation comes from these Power Processing Units – contributed by Airbus Crisa in Spain,” explains Neil, “which supply the regulated voltages and currents to the thrusters based on instructions from ground control via the spacecraft on-board computer.”

Propulsion system

The other key elements are propellant Flow Control Units, also overseen by the PPUs, and the high-voltage electrical harness. The FCUs ensure the correct flows of xenon gas are supplied to the thrusters and were developed by Bradford Engineering in the Netherlands to provide programmable flow rates. The various elements of the propulsion system have undergone individual and extensive performance and qualification testing ultimately concluding in a series of tests performed at QinetiQ's Farnborough site. Testing times The spacecraft configuration and the extreme nature of the BepiColombo mission – needing to function in thermal conditions akin to placing it in a pizza oven – often demanded similarly extreme test scenarios, pushing the solar electric propulsion technology and test facilities to their limits. “One important test early in the programme was to ensure that two thrusters could be operated in close proximity for prolonged periods without harmful interactions,” adds Neil. “They turned out to be remarkably tolerant of each other with no measureable effects.”

Test setup

One of the biggest ironies of the thruster qualification for BepiColombo, heading close to the Sun, was the extreme minimum temperatures experienced by its ion thrusters. Neil explains: “Despite the fact the mission is headed to Mercury, the bulk of the spacecraft shadows the thrusters for very long periods and when not operating they naturally cool to temperatures way lower than ever tested in the past. We needed to prove they would turn-on and operate within specification when cooled to minus 150 C.

BepiColombo plasma simulation

“It was a remarkable testament to the robustness of the technology that even after temperatures sufficient to freeze the xenon in the pipes the thrusters were able to start and operate flawlessly.” End of the journey The propulsion system is dependent on the Mercury Planetary Orbiter’s onboard computer for its control and command, so by itself it will not be able to function. Its ultimate fate is to be cast off, when the three-module BepiColombo stack separates before entering Mercury orbit, to circle the Sun indefinitely in the vicinity of the planet, letting the two science modules go to work.

BepiColombo arrival at Mercury timeline

“At one point while planning the BepiColombo mission, the Mercury Transfer Module was planned to impact the planet,” Neil comments, “a sort of Viking funeral that seemed fitting to all of us engineers.” Gridded ion thruster technology will have a life far beyond BepiColombo however, with commercial applications in development, and future, even more ambitious ESA science missions set to rely on the technology. Related links: ESA's BepiColombo: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/BepiColombo T6 ion thrusters installed on BepiColombo: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/Electric_blue_thrusters_propelling_BepiColombo_to_Mercury Propulsion and Aerothermodynamics: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/Propulsion_and_Aerothermodynamics Propulsion Laboratory: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/Propulsion_Laboratory QinetiQ Space: http://www.qinetiq.be/ Images, Videos, Text, Credits: ESA/Félicien Filleul/QinetiQ/ATG medialab/ESA/D.Tagliafierro (TAS-I)/CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Best regards, Orbiter.ch Full article

SOLAR ORBITER TO PASS THROUGH THE TAILS OF COMET ATLAS ESA’s Solar Orbiter will cross through the tails of Comet ATLAS during the next few days. Although the recently launched spacecraft was not due to be taking science data at this time, mission experts have worked to ensure that the four most relevant instruments will be switched on during the unique encounter. Solar Orbiter was launched on 10 February 2020. Since then, and with the exception of a brief shutdown due to the coronavirus pandemic, scientists and engineers have been conducting a series of tests and set-up routines known as commissioning. The completion date for this phase was set at 15 June, so that the spacecraft could be fully functional for its first close pass of the Sun, or perihelion, in mid-June. However, the discovery of the chance encounter with the comet made things more urgent. Serendipitously flying through a comet’s tail is a rare event for a space mission, something scientists know to have happened only six times before for missions that were not specifically chasing comets. All such encounters have been discovered in the spacecraft data after the event. Solar Orbiter’s upcoming crossing is the first to be predicted in advance. It was noticed by Geraint Jones of the UCL Mullard Space Science Laboratory, UK, who has a 20-year history of investigating such encounters. He discovered the first accidental tail crossing in 2000, while investigating a strange disturbance in data recorded by the ESA/NASA Ulysses Sun-studying spacecraft in 1996. This study revealed that the spacecraft had passed through the tail of Comet Hyakutake, also known as ‘The Great Comet of 1996.’ Soon after the announcement, Ulysses crossed the tail of another comet, and then a third one in 2007. Earlier this month, realising that Solar Orbiter was going to be 44 million kilometres downstream of Comet C/2019 Y4 (ATLAS) in just a matter of weeks, Geraint immediately alerted the ESA team. Bonus Science Solar Orbiter is equipped with a suite of 10 in-situ and remote-sensing instruments to investigate the Sun and the flow of charged particles it releases into space -- the solar wind. Fortuitously, the four in-situ instruments are also perfect for detecting the comet’s tails because they measure the conditions around the spacecraft, and so they could return data about the dust grains and the electrically charged particles given off by the comet. These emissions create the comet’s two tails: the dust tail that is left behind in the comet’s orbit and the ion tail that points straight away from the Sun. Solar Orbiter will cross the ion tail of Comet ATLAS on 31 May/1 June, and the dust tail on 6 June. If the ion tail is dense enough, Solar Orbiter’s magnetometer (MAG) might detect the variation of the interplanetary magnetic field because of its interaction with ions in the comet’s tail, while the Solar Wind Analyser (SWA) could directly capture some of the tail particles. When Solar Orbiter crosses the dust tail, depending on its density -- which is extremely difficult to predict -- it is possible that one or more tiny dust grains may hit the spacecraft at speeds of tens of kilometres per second. While there is no significant risk to the spacecraft from this, the dust grains themselves will be vaporised on impact, forming tiny clouds of electrically charged gas, or plasma, which could be detected by the Radio and Plasma Waves (RPW) instrument. “An unexpected encounter like this provides a mission with unique opportunities and challenges, but that’s good! Chances like this are all part of the adventure of science,” says Günther Hasinger, ESA Director of Science. One of those challenges was that the instruments seemed unlikely to all be ready in time because of the commissioning. Now, thanks to a special effort by the instrument teams and ESA’s mission operations team, all four in-situ instruments will be on and collecting data, even though at certain times the instruments will need to be switched back into commissioning mode to ensure that the 15 June deadline is met. “With these caveats, we are ready for whatever Comet ATLAS has to tell us,” says Daniel Müller, ESA Project Scientist for Solar Orbiter. Expect the Unexpected Another challenge entails the comet’s behaviour. Comet ATLAS was discovered on 28 December 2019. During the next few months, it brightened so much that astronomers wondered whether it would become visible to the naked eye in May. Unfortunately, in early April the comet fragmented. As a result, its brightness dropped significantly too, robbing sky watchers of the view. A further fragmentation in mid-May has diminished the comet even more, making it less likely to be detectable by Solar Orbiter. Although the chances of detection have reduced, the effort is still worth making according to Geraint. “With each encounter with a comet, we learn more about these intriguing objects. If Solar Orbiter detects Comet ATLAS’s presence, then we’ll learn more about how comets interact with the solar wind, and we can check, for example, whether our expectations of dust tail behaviour agree with our models,” he explains. “All missions that encounter comets provide pieces of the jigsaw puzzle.” Geraint is the principal investigator of ESA’s future Comet Interceptor mission, which consists of three spacecraft and is scheduled for launch in 2028. It will make a much closer flyby of an as yet unknown comet that will be selected from the newly discovered comets nearer the time of launch (or even after that). Grazing the Sun Solar Orbiter is currently circling our parent star between the orbits of Venus and Mercury, with its first perihelion to take place on 15 June, around 77 million kilometres from the Sun. In coming years, it will get much closer, within the orbit of Mercury, around 42 million kilometres from the solar surface. Meanwhile, Comet ATLAS is already there, approaching its own perihelion, which is expected on 31 May, around 37 million kilometres from the Sun. “This tail crossing is also exciting because it will happen for the first time at such close distances from the Sun, with the comet nucleus being inside the orbit of Mercury,” says Yannis Zouganelis, ESA Deputy Project Scientist for Solar Orbiter. Understanding the dust environment in the innermost region of the solar system is one of Solar Orbiter’s scientific objectives. “Near-Sun comets like Comet ATLAS are sources of dust in the inner heliosphere and so this study will not only help us understand the comet, but also the dust environment of our star,” adds Yannis. Looking at an icy object rather than the scorching Sun is certainly an exciting -- and unexpected -- way for Solar Orbiter to start its scientific mission, but that’s the nature of science. “Scientific discovery is built on good planning and serendipity. In the three months since launch, the Solar Orbiter team has already proved that it’s ready for both,” says Daniel. IMAGE 1....A view of Comet C/2019 Y4 (ATLAS) obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope on 23 April 2020. The comet was first discovered in December 2019 by the ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) collaboration, and its fragmentation was confirmed in April 2020. Hubble has provided astronomers with the sharpest view yet of the comet breakup, resolving roughly 25 fragments of the comet in this image. In May 2020, studies indicated that ESA’s Solar Orbiter would serendipitously cross through the tails of Comet ATLAS on 31 May–1 June (ion tail) and 6 June (dust tail). NASA, ESA, D. Jewitt (UCLA), Q. Ye (University of Maryland), CC BY 4.0 IMAGE 2....ESA's Solar Orbiter mission will face the Sun from within the orbit of Mercury at its closest approach. ESA/ATG medialab IMAGE 3....Solar Orbiter's suite of ten science instruments that will study the Sun. There are two types: in situ and remote sensing. The in situ instruments measure the conditions around the spacecraft itself. The remote-sensing instruments measure what is happening at large distances away. Together, both sets of data can be used to piece together a more complete picture of what is happening in the Sun’s corona and the solar wind. The in situ instruments: EPD: Energetic Particle Detector EPD will measure the energetic particles that flow past the spacecraft. It will look at their composition and variation in time. The data will help scientists investigate the sources, acceleration mechanisms, and transport processes of these particles. Principal Investigator: Javier Rodríguez-Pacheco, University of Alcalá, Spain MAG: Magnetometer MAG will measure the magnetic field around the spacecraft with high precision. It will help determine how the Sun’s magnetic field links to the rest of the Solar System and changes with time. This will help us understand how the corona is heated and how energy is transported in the solar wind. Principal Investigator: Tim Horbury, Imperial College London, United Kingdom RPW: Radio and Plasma Waves RPW will measure the variation in magnetic and electric fields using a number of sensors and antennas. This will help to determine the characteristics of electromagnetic waves and fields in the solar wind. RPW is the only instrument on Solar Orbiter that makes both in situ and remote sensing measurements. Principal Investigator: Milan Maksimovic, LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, France SWA: Solar Wind Plasma Analyser SWA consists of a suite of sensors that will measure the solar wind’s bulk properties, such as density, velocity and temperature. It will also measure the composition of the solar wind. Principal Investigator: Christopher Owen, Mullard Space Science Laboratory, United Kingdom The remote-sensing instruments: EUI: Extreme Ultraviolet Imager EUI will take images of the solar chromosphere, transition region and corona. This will allow scientists to investigate the mysterious heating processes that take effect in this region and will allow connecting in situ measurements of the solar wind back to their source regions on the Sun. Principal Investigator: David Berghmans, Royal Observatory, Belgium Metis: Coronagraph Metis will take simultaneous images of the corona in visible and ultraviolet wavelengths. This will show the structure and dynamics of the solar atmosphere in unprecedented detail, stretching out from 1.7 to 4.1 solar radii. This will allow scientists to look for the link between the behaviour of these regions and space weather in the inner Solar System. Principal Investigator: Marco Romoli, INAF – University of Florence, Italy PHI: Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager PHI will provide high-resolution measurements of the magnetic field across the photosphere, and maps of its brightness at visible wavelengths. It will also produce velocity maps of the movement of the photosphere that will allow helioseismic investigations of the solar interior, in particular the convective zone. Principal Investigator: Sami Solanki, Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung, Germany SoloHI: Heliospheric Imager SoloHI will take images of the solar wind by capturing the light scattered by electrons particles in the wind. This will allow the identification of transient disturbances in the solar wind, such as the type that can trigger a coronal mass ejection, in which a billion tons of coronal gas can be ejected outwards into space. Principal Investigator: Russell A. Howard, US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., USA SPICE: Spectral Imaging of the Coronal Environment SPICE will reveal the properties of the solar transition region and corona by measuring the extreme ultraviolet wavelengths given off by the plasma. This data will be matched to the solar wind properties that are subsequently detected by the spacecraft’s in situ instruments. European-led facility instrument; Principal Investigator for Operations Phase: Frédéric Auchère, IAS, Orsay, France STIX: X-ray Spectrometer/Telescope STIX will detect X-ray emission coming from the Sun. This could be from hot plasma, often related to explosive magnetic activity such as solar flares. STIX will provide the timing, location, intensity, and energy data for these events so that their effects on the solar wind can be better understood. Principal Investigator: Säm Krucker, FHNW, Windisch, Switzerland Solar Orbiter is a space mission of international collaboration between ESA and NASA. Its mission is to perform unprecedented close-up observations of the Sun and from high-latitudes, providing the first images of the uncharted polar regions of the Sun, and investigating the Sun-Earth connection. Data from the spacecraft’s suite of ten instruments will provide unprecedented insight into how our parent star works in terms of the 11-year solar cycle, and how we can better predict periods of stormy space weather. ESA-S.Poletti IMAGE 4....The main components of a comet – nucleus, coma, hydrogen envelope, dust and plasma tails – indicating their composition, relative sizes and location. The diagram is representative and not to scale. ESA IMAGE 5....The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has provided astronomers with the sharpest view yet of the breakup of Comet C/2019 Y4 (ATLAS). The telescope resolved roughly 30 fragments of the comet on 20 April and 25 pieces on 23 April. The comet was first discovered in December 2019 by the ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) and its fragmentation was confirmed in April 2020. NASA, ESA, D. Jewitt (UCLA), Q. Ye (University of Maryland); CC BY 4.0 IMAGE 6....Solar Orbiter was launched on an Atlas V 411 rocket from Cape Canaveral in Florida, USA, at 05:15 CET on 8 February 2020 (23:15 EST on 7 February). Gravity assist manoeuvres at Earth and Venus will enable the spacecraft to change inclination to observe the Sun from different perspectives. During the initial cruise phase, which lasts until November 2021, Solar Orbiter will perform two gravity-assist manoeuvres around Venus and one around Earth to alter the spacecraft’s trajectory, guiding it towards the innermost regions of the Solar System. At the same time, Solar Orbiter will acquire in situ data and characterise and calibrate its remote-sensing instruments. The first close solar pass will take place in 2022 at around a third of Earth’s distance from the Sun. The spacecraft’s orbit has been chosen to be ‘in resonance’ with Venus, which means that it will return to the planet’s vicinity every few orbits and can again use the planet’s gravity to alter or tilt its orbit. Initially Solar Orbiter will be confined to the same plane as the planets, but each encounter of Venus will increase its orbital inclination. For example, after the 2025 Venus encounter it will make its first solar pass at 17º inclination, increasing to 33º during a proposed mission extension phase, bringing even more of the polar regions into direct view. Solar Orbiter is a space mission of international collaboration between ESA and NASA. Its mission is to perform unprecedented close-up observations of the Sun and from high-latitudes, providing the first images of the uncharted polar regions of the Sun, and investigating the Sun-Earth connection. Data from the spacecraft’s suite of ten instruments will provide unprecedented insight into how our parent star works in terms of the 11-year solar cycle, and how we can better predict periods of stormy space weather. ESA-S.Poletti

Which Microfluidic Device System Should You Buy?

If you are considering buying a Microfluidic Device System, you have many choices to consider. This innovative device uses small amounts of fluid on a microchip to perform laboratory tests and diagnose diseases. If you are looking for a microfluidic device, Darwin Microfluidics is the best place to shop. If you are unsure of which device to buy, read on for some helpful tips. You can also get the microfluidic device for a lot less than you may expect.

The most common materials used in the fabrication of microfluidic devices are thermoplastic and thermoset polymers. They are inexpensive, permeable to gases, and can be manufactured using soft lithography. Thermoplastic polymers are commonly used for inexpensive microfluidic platforms, and the use of cyclic olefin polymers has increased their popularity. These materials are resistant to chemicals, offer high optical transparency, and are easy to work with and process. For more details related to microfluidic device, click here now!

The report focuses on global key vendors in the Microfluidic Device System market. The research also covers key regional market trends and competitive developments. Detailed analysis of the industry highlights key vendors, product types, and applications. Global Microfluidic Device System market shares and forecasts provide insight into the future of the market. This research provides essential guidance for buyers to choose the right Microfluidic Device System. For more information, contact our expert advisors.

Microfluidic devices can be manufactured using both dry etching and wet etching techniques. Dry etching is the most common method, but it is costly. A process called plasma etching involves ionizing a gas mixture within a chamber. These ions then react with the target substrate. These etching techniques are a good alternative to traditional chemical etching. If you need to etch a surface quickly, dry etching is an excellent option. Find more information related to Microfluidic devices, this blog has more details so it is advisable to check it out!

When determining which microfluidic device to buy, it is important to consider the materials and manufacturing method. Glass devices are a common choice for microfluidic devices due to their chemical and optical properties. However, they are expensive and unlikely to be disposable. Regardless of the material used, there are several benefits to glass. These benefits are usually worth the added cost. And as long as you have the space and budget, you should be good to go.

Biological and chemical research laboratories have become a lot smaller thanks to the Microfluidic ChipShop. This company is revolutionizing lab life by bringing lab-on-a-chip systems into the everyday lives of laboratory scientists. Compared to electronics 60 years ago, life sciences are going through a similar revolution. Miniaturization and functional integration are two major trends in life sciences. Moreover, you can also buy a Microfluidic ChipShop that provides prototyping services as well as production capabilities. You can get more enlightened on this topic by reading here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_microfluidics.

What Is Chromatography?

Chromatography liners is a scientific technique that divides or evaluates different elements of a mix. It can be utilized to separate certain parts, identify their relative amounts and identify their identity. In chromatography, an example is dissolved in a mobile stage (which may be a fluid or gas) that streams through a stable fixed phase. Each component in the example has a various solubility in the mobile stage; consequently, it will certainly take differing amounts of time to pass through the fixed phase.

There are numerous types of chromatography, however they all work with the exact same concept. Each has a stationary phase that is a solid, liquid or gas sustained on a solid. A few of one of the most typical approaches consist of gas chromatography, thin-layer chromatography and also paper chromatography. These methods are very popular for a variety of applications busy and also in industry.

Paper chromatography is a method that is incredibly popular with scientific research teachers as well as pupils. It is a wonderful way to introduce students to the fundamental principles of chromatography. In this method, a remedy of alcohol as well as water is made use of as the mobile stage. This service is adsorbeted onto the surface area of chromatography paper. The solvent is after that permitted to flow up the paper making use of capillary activity and gravity.

This kind of chromatography is typically made use of to different substances that have comparable chemical residential properties, such as amino acids. The splittings up are very simple to observe and also contrast. A variety of different chromatography strategies can be utilized to separate compounds from one another, such as ion exchange, acid/base chromatography, silica gel, and also magnetic particle chromatography. These are all really flexible and can be put on a vast array of substances.

The distance that a liquid substance goes up a plate of chromatography is called the retention factor. It is a characteristic that can be made use of to recognize a provided compound on a chromatogram and also compare it to known samples at a specific temperature level. It can likewise be used to determine a material based on its molecular structure, which can assist in the identification of an unidentified substance. It is especially valuable for the recognition of food colours.

There are many different kinds of chromatography, yet they all work by dissolving the sample in a mobile phase as well as compeling it through an immobile stationary phase. This separation procedure allows the chromatogram to be split right into unique zones or "tops," depending upon the specific chromatography technique. Chromatography is a powerful as well as functional technique that has actually been around for thousands of years.

It can be made use of to detoxify products, test trace quantities of impurities, isolate chiral substances and quality assurance test items. Chromatography is a great device for examining the make-up of any type of material. It can be used in a variety of fields, including drugs, food, forensics as well as industrial research. The modern technology remains to progress as well as come to be a lot more improved, permitting scientists to determine compounds with boosted uniqueness than was feasible simply a few years back. Check out this post for more details related to this article: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/chemistry/chemistry-general/chromatography.

These 3 energy storage technologies can help solve the challenge of moving to 100% renewable electricity

Kerry Rippy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

In recent decades the cost of wind and solar power generation has dropped dramatically. This is one reason that the U.S. Dept. of Energy projects that renewable energy will be the fastest-growing U.S. energy source through 2050.

However, it’s still relatively expensive to store energy. And since renewable energy generation isn’t available all the time – it happens when the wind blows or the sun shines – storage is essential.

As a researcher at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, I work with the federal government and private industry to develop renewable energy storage technologies. In a recent report, researchers at NREL estimated that the potential exists to increase U.S. renewable energy storage capacity by as much as 3,000% percent by 2050.

Here are three emerging technologies that could help make this happen.

Longer charges

From alkaline batteries for small electronics to lithium-ion batteries for cars and laptops, most people already use batteries in many aspects of their daily lives. But there is still lots of room for growth.

For example, high-capacity batteries with long discharge times – up to 10 hours – could be valuable for storing solar power at night or increasing the range of electric vehicles. Right now there are very few such batteries in use. However, according to recent projections, upwards of 100 gigawatts worth of these batteries will likely be installed by 2050. For comparison, that’s 50 times the generating capacity of Hoover Dam. This could have a major impact on the viability of renewable energy. Batteries work by creating a chemical reaction that produces a flow of electrical current.

One of the biggest obstacles is limited supplies of lithium and cobalt, which currently are essential for making lightweight, powerful batteries. According to some estimates, around 10% of the world’s lithium and nearly all of the world’s cobalt reserves will be depleted by 2050.

Furthermore, nearly 70% of the world’s cobalt is mined in the Congo, under conditions that have long been documented as inhumane.

Scientists are working to develop techniques for recycling lithium and cobalt batteries, and to design batteries based on other materials. Tesla plans to produce cobalt-free batteries within the next few years. Others aim to replace lithium with sodium, which has properties very similar to lithium’s but is much more abundant.

Safer batteries

Another priority is to make batteries safer. One area for improvement is electrolytes – the medium, often liquid, that allows an electric charge to flow from the battery’s anode, or negative terminal, to the cathode, or positive terminal.

When a battery is in use, charged particles in the electrolyte move around to balance out the charge of the electricity flowing out of the battery. Electrolytes often contain flammable materials. If they leak, the battery can overheat and catch fire or melt.

Scientists are developing solid electrolytes, which would make batteries more robust. It is much harder for particles to move around through solids than through liquids, but encouraging lab-scale results suggest that these batteries could be ready for use in electric vehicles in the coming years, with target dates for commercialization as early as 2026.

While solid-state batteries would be well suited for consumer electronics and electric vehicles, for large-scale energy storage, scientists are pursuing all-liquid designs called flow batteries.

A typical flow battery consists of two tanks of liquids that are pumped past a membrane held between two electrodes. Qi and Koenig, 2017, CC BY

In these devices both the electrolyte and the electrodes are liquids. This allows for super-fast charging and makes it easy to make really big batteries. Currently these systems are very expensive, but research continues to bring down the price.

Storing sunlight as heat

Other renewable energy storage solutions cost less than batteries in some cases. For example, concentrated solar power plants use mirrors to concentrate sunlight, which heats up hundreds or thousands of tons of salt until it melts. This molten salt then is used to drive an electric generator, much as coal or nuclear power is used to heat steam and drive a generator in traditional plants.

These heated materials can also be stored to produce electricity when it is cloudy, or even at night. This approach allows concentrated solar power to work around the clock.

Checking a molten salt valve for corrosion at Sandia’s Molten Salt Test Loop. Randy Montoya, Sandia Labs/Flickr, CC BY-NC-ND

This idea could be adapted for use with nonsolar power generation technologies. For example, electricity made with wind power could be used to heat salt for use later when it isn’t windy.

Concentrating solar power is still relatively expensive. To compete with other forms of energy generation and storage, it needs to become more efficient. One way to achieve this is to increase the temperature the salt is heated to, enabling more efficient electricity production. Unfortunately, the salts currently in use aren’t stable at high temperatures. Researchers are working to develop new salts or other materials that can withstand temperatures as high as 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit (705 C).

One leading idea for how to reach higher temperature involves heating up sand instead of salt, which can withstand the higher temperature. The sand would then be moved with conveyor belts from the heating point to storage. The Department of Energy recently announced funding for a pilot concentrated solar power plant based on this concept.

Advanced renewable fuels

Batteries are useful for short-term energy storage, and concentrated solar power plants could help stabilize the electric grid. However, utilities also need to store a lot of energy for indefinite amounts of time. This is a role for renewable fuels like hydrogen and ammonia. Utilities would store energy in these fuels by producing them with surplus power, when wind turbines and solar panels are generating more electricity than the utilities’ customers need.

Hydrogen and ammonia contain more energy per pound than batteries, so they work where batteries don’t. For example, they could be used for shipping heavy loads and running heavy equipment, and for rocket fuel.

Today these fuels are mostly made from natural gas or other nonrenewable fossil fuels via extremely inefficient reactions. While we think of it as a green fuel, most hydrogen gas today is made from natural gas.

Scientists are looking for ways to produce hydrogen and other fuels using renewable electricity. For example, it is possible to make hydrogen fuel by splitting water molecules using electricity. The key challenge is optimizing the process to make it efficient and economical. The potential payoff is enormous: inexhaustible, completely renewable energy.

[Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week. Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter.]

Kerry Rippy, Researcher, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

from https://ift.tt/3yqN7mH

Dealing with leakage damage becomes a lot easier with quality Ion Science Gas Check series technology. The spectrum of industrial sectors comes in contact with certain types of flammable and toxic gases which have the potential to cause huge damage. In order to avert the unnecessary complications, focus on having organized safety systems that are precisely designed to save the workforce, equipment and processes of the industries from harm.

These 3 energy storage technologies can help solve the challenge of moving to 100% renewable electricity

Kerry Rippy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

In recent decades the cost of wind and solar power generation has dropped dramatically. This is one reason that the U.S. Dept. of Energy projects that renewable energy will be the fastest-growing U.S. energy source through 2050.

However, it’s still relatively expensive to store energy. And since renewable energy generation isn’t available all the time – it happens when the wind blows or the sun shines – storage is essential.

As a researcher at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, I work with the federal government and private industry to develop renewable energy storage technologies. In a recent report, researchers at NREL estimated that the potential exists to increase U.S. renewable energy storage capacity by as much as 3,000% percent by 2050.

Here are three emerging technologies that could help make this happen.

Longer charges

From alkaline batteries for small electronics to lithium-ion batteries for cars and laptops, most people already use batteries in many aspects of their daily lives. But there is still lots of room for growth.

For example, high-capacity batteries with long discharge times – up to 10 hours – could be valuable for storing solar power at night or increasing the range of electric vehicles. Right now there are very few such batteries in use. However, according to recent projections, upwards of 100 gigawatts worth of these batteries will likely be installed by 2050. For comparison, that’s 50 times the generating capacity of Hoover Dam. This could have a major impact on the viability of renewable energy. Batteries work by creating a chemical reaction that produces a flow of electrical current.

One of the biggest obstacles is limited supplies of lithium and cobalt, which currently are essential for making lightweight, powerful batteries. According to some estimates, around 10% of the world’s lithium and nearly all of the world’s cobalt reserves will be depleted by 2050.

Furthermore, nearly 70% of the world’s cobalt is mined in the Congo, under conditions that have long been documented as inhumane.

Scientists are working to develop techniques for recycling lithium and cobalt batteries, and to design batteries based on other materials. Tesla plans to produce cobalt-free batteries within the next few years. Others aim to replace lithium with sodium, which has properties very similar to lithium’s but is much more abundant.

Safer batteries

Another priority is to make batteries safer. One area for improvement is electrolytes – the medium, often liquid, that allows an electric charge to flow from the battery’s anode, or negative terminal, to the cathode, or positive terminal.

When a battery is in use, charged particles in the electrolyte move around to balance out the charge of the electricity flowing out of the battery. Electrolytes often contain flammable materials. If they leak, the battery can overheat and catch fire or melt.

Scientists are developing solid electrolytes, which would make batteries more robust. It is much harder for particles to move around through solids than through liquids, but encouraging lab-scale results suggest that these batteries could be ready for use in electric vehicles in the coming years, with target dates for commercialization as early as 2026.

While solid-state batteries would be well suited for consumer electronics and electric vehicles, for large-scale energy storage, scientists are pursuing all-liquid designs called flow batteries.

A typical flow battery consists of two tanks of liquids that are pumped past a membrane held between two electrodes. Qi and Koenig, 2017, CC BY

In these devices both the electrolyte and the electrodes are liquids. This allows for super-fast charging and makes it easy to make really big batteries. Currently these systems are very expensive, but research continues to bring down the price.

Storing sunlight as heat

Other renewable energy storage solutions cost less than batteries in some cases. For example, concentrated solar power plants use mirrors to concentrate sunlight, which heats up hundreds or thousands of tons of salt until it melts. This molten salt then is used to drive an electric generator, much as coal or nuclear power is used to heat steam and drive a generator in traditional plants.

These heated materials can also be stored to produce electricity when it is cloudy, or even at night. This approach allows concentrated solar power to work around the clock.

Checking a molten salt valve for corrosion at Sandia’s Molten Salt Test Loop. Randy Montoya, Sandia Labs/Flickr, CC BY-NC-ND

This idea could be adapted for use with nonsolar power generation technologies. For example, electricity made with wind power could be used to heat salt for use later when it isn’t windy.

Concentrating solar power is still relatively expensive. To compete with other forms of energy generation and storage, it needs to become more efficient. One way to achieve this is to increase the temperature the salt is heated to, enabling more efficient electricity production. Unfortunately, the salts currently in use aren’t stable at high temperatures. Researchers are working to develop new salts or other materials that can withstand temperatures as high as 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit (705 C).

One leading idea for how to reach higher temperature involves heating up sand instead of salt, which can withstand the higher temperature. The sand would then be moved with conveyor belts from the heating point to storage. The Department of Energy recently announced funding for a pilot concentrated solar power plant based on this concept.

Advanced renewable fuels

Batteries are useful for short-term energy storage, and concentrated solar power plants could help stabilize the electric grid. However, utilities also need to store a lot of energy for indefinite amounts of time. This is a role for renewable fuels like hydrogen and ammonia. Utilities would store energy in these fuels by producing them with surplus power, when wind turbines and solar panels are generating more electricity than the utilities’ customers need.

Hydrogen and ammonia contain more energy per pound than batteries, so they work where batteries don’t. For example, they could be used for shipping heavy loads and running heavy equipment, and for rocket fuel.

Today these fuels are mostly made from natural gas or other nonrenewable fossil fuels via extremely inefficient reactions. While we think of it as a green fuel, most hydrogen gas today is made from natural gas.

Scientists are looking for ways to produce hydrogen and other fuels using renewable electricity. For example, it is possible to make hydrogen fuel by splitting water molecules using electricity. The key challenge is optimizing the process to make it efficient and economical. The potential payoff is enormous: inexhaustible, completely renewable energy.

[Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week. Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter.]

Kerry Rippy, Researcher, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

from Renewable Energy World https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/storage/these-3-energy-storage-technologies-can-help-solve-the-challenge-of-moving-to-100-renewable-electricity/

These 3 energy storage technologies can help solve the challenge of moving to 100% renewable electricity

Kerry Rippy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

In recent decades the cost of wind and solar power generation has dropped dramatically. This is one reason that the U.S. Dept. of Energy projects that renewable energy will be the fastest-growing U.S. energy source through 2050.

However, it’s still relatively expensive to store energy. And since renewable energy generation isn’t available all the time – it happens when the wind blows or the sun shines – storage is essential.

As a researcher at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, I work with the federal government and private industry to develop renewable energy storage technologies. In a recent report, researchers at NREL estimated that the potential exists to increase U.S. renewable energy storage capacity by as much as 3,000% percent by 2050.

Here are three emerging technologies that could help make this happen.

Longer charges

From alkaline batteries for small electronics to lithium-ion batteries for cars and laptops, most people already use batteries in many aspects of their daily lives. But there is still lots of room for growth.

For example, high-capacity batteries with long discharge times – up to 10 hours – could be valuable for storing solar power at night or increasing the range of electric vehicles. Right now there are very few such batteries in use. However, according to recent projections, upwards of 100 gigawatts worth of these batteries will likely be installed by 2050. For comparison, that’s 50 times the generating capacity of Hoover Dam. This could have a major impact on the viability of renewable energy. Batteries work by creating a chemical reaction that produces a flow of electrical current.

One of the biggest obstacles is limited supplies of lithium and cobalt, which currently are essential for making lightweight, powerful batteries. According to some estimates, around 10% of the world’s lithium and nearly all of the world’s cobalt reserves will be depleted by 2050.

Furthermore, nearly 70% of the world’s cobalt is mined in the Congo, under conditions that have long been documented as inhumane.

Scientists are working to develop techniques for recycling lithium and cobalt batteries, and to design batteries based on other materials. Tesla plans to produce cobalt-free batteries within the next few years. Others aim to replace lithium with sodium, which has properties very similar to lithium’s but is much more abundant.

Safer batteries

Another priority is to make batteries safer. One area for improvement is electrolytes – the medium, often liquid, that allows an electric charge to flow from the battery’s anode, or negative terminal, to the cathode, or positive terminal.

When a battery is in use, charged particles in the electrolyte move around to balance out the charge of the electricity flowing out of the battery. Electrolytes often contain flammable materials. If they leak, the battery can overheat and catch fire or melt.

Scientists are developing solid electrolytes, which would make batteries more robust. It is much harder for particles to move around through solids than through liquids, but encouraging lab-scale results suggest that these batteries could be ready for use in electric vehicles in the coming years, with target dates for commercialization as early as 2026.

While solid-state batteries would be well suited for consumer electronics and electric vehicles, for large-scale energy storage, scientists are pursuing all-liquid designs called flow batteries.

A typical flow battery consists of two tanks of liquids that are pumped past a membrane held between two electrodes. Qi and Koenig, 2017, CC BY

In these devices both the electrolyte and the electrodes are liquids. This allows for super-fast charging and makes it easy to make really big batteries. Currently these systems are very expensive, but research continues to bring down the price.

Storing sunlight as heat

Other renewable energy storage solutions cost less than batteries in some cases. For example, concentrated solar power plants use mirrors to concentrate sunlight, which heats up hundreds or thousands of tons of salt until it melts. This molten salt then is used to drive an electric generator, much as coal or nuclear power is used to heat steam and drive a generator in traditional plants.

These heated materials can also be stored to produce electricity when it is cloudy, or even at night. This approach allows concentrated solar power to work around the clock.

Checking a molten salt valve for corrosion at Sandia’s Molten Salt Test Loop. Randy Montoya, Sandia Labs/Flickr, CC BY-NC-ND

This idea could be adapted for use with nonsolar power generation technologies. For example, electricity made with wind power could be used to heat salt for use later when it isn’t windy.

Concentrating solar power is still relatively expensive. To compete with other forms of energy generation and storage, it needs to become more efficient. One way to achieve this is to increase the temperature the salt is heated to, enabling more efficient electricity production. Unfortunately, the salts currently in use aren’t stable at high temperatures. Researchers are working to develop new salts or other materials that can withstand temperatures as high as 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit (705 C).

One leading idea for how to reach higher temperature involves heating up sand instead of salt, which can withstand the higher temperature. The sand would then be moved with conveyor belts from the heating point to storage. The Department of Energy recently announced funding for a pilot concentrated solar power plant based on this concept.

Advanced renewable fuels

Batteries are useful for short-term energy storage, and concentrated solar power plants could help stabilize the electric grid. However, utilities also need to store a lot of energy for indefinite amounts of time. This is a role for renewable fuels like hydrogen and ammonia. Utilities would store energy in these fuels by producing them with surplus power, when wind turbines and solar panels are generating more electricity than the utilities’ customers need.

Hydrogen and ammonia contain more energy per pound than batteries, so they work where batteries don’t. For example, they could be used for shipping heavy loads and running heavy equipment, and for rocket fuel.

Today these fuels are mostly made from natural gas or other nonrenewable fossil fuels via extremely inefficient reactions. While we think of it as a green fuel, most hydrogen gas today is made from natural gas.

Scientists are looking for ways to produce hydrogen and other fuels using renewable electricity. For example, it is possible to make hydrogen fuel by splitting water molecules using electricity. The key challenge is optimizing the process to make it efficient and economical. The potential payoff is enormous: inexhaustible, completely renewable energy.

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Kerry Rippy, Researcher, National Renewable Energy Laboratory

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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