June 28, 2022

The Canadian Council on Invasive Species (CCIS) gave a short presentation of the top 10 invasive species already in Canada or that could come to Canada from south of our border and that we therefore should be on the alert for. 

The top 10 invasive species were as follows:

Asian long-horned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis

Spotted lanternfly, Lycorma delicatula

Asian giant hornet, Vespa mandarinia

Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis

Hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae

Brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys

Dutch elm disease, Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi

Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica

Spongy moth (also LDD moth; previously gypsy moth), Lymantria dispar dispar

Lily leaf beetle, Lilioceris lilii

I have definitely seen at least three of these species and/or the damage they have done, specifically 4, 8, and 9. 

You can help by reporting these species through, for example, iNaturalist. CCIS has their own project on iNaturalist, titled “I Spy and Identify Invasives / Je vois, J’identifie les espèces envahissantes”, which you can join: https://www.inaturalist.org/projects/i-spy-and-identify-invasives-je-vois-j-identifie-les-especes-envahissantes. The CCIS also has a whole webpage on how and where to report: https://canadainvasives.ca/take-action/report/.

iParasitology: Prospecting the Internet to evaluate Parasitological Practices.

In the beginnings Leptographium kinds, generally M. serpens, centered. From stems and twigs, generally Ophiostoma types had been singled out. The good connection between the occurrence regarding glowing blue discolor and overhead openness, along with the top disease degrees of roots regarding rather energetic Scottish pines, indicates the pathogenic potential of the blue-stain infection. Therefore, these kinds of fungus infection in addition to his or her bug vectors may well behave as an important contributing aspect linked to this tree decrease.Java agroecosystems with a vegetatively intricate hue canopy contain higher numbers of bio-diversity. However, while caffeine supervision is become more intense, variety may be misplaced. Nearly all bio-diversity research inside coffee agroecosystems have got examined possible predators instead of herbivores, even with their particular significance since prospective java pests and occasional condition vectors. All of us taste accomplished abundant herbivore gang of leafhoppers with an natural and organic java farmville farm throughout Chiapas, Central america. We all experienced leafhoppers along with raised pot traps in higher and moderate-shade caffeine in the dry and also soaked periods regarding Next year. Both the key objectives would A single) compare leafhopper great quantity and richness through the soaked and dried out seasons and 2) check out the correlations involving habitat features (electronic. g., plant life, level, and existence of hostile ants) as well as leafhopper wealth along with great quantity. We obtained Two,351 leafhoppers, representing eight tribes along with 64 morphospecies. Leafhopper large quantity has been greater inside the dried up season in comparison to the particular damp time of year. Also, leafhopper richness ended up being larger from the dry time. Several vegetation and other home traits linked together with large quantity as well as abundance associated with leafhoppers. The amount of Inga trees really related along with leafhopper abundance, and also other considerable fits involving great quantity incorporated plants difficulty. Leafhopper richness has been related with all the amount of Inga trees and shrubs. Since leafhoppers transfer important espresso conditions, understanding the specific environment elements correlating together with modifications in plethora and also richness might help predict potential ailment episodes.Your bone-sparing aftereffect of excess estrogen is primarily mediated through estrogen receptor (Im or her) alpha, which in turn induces target gene transcription by means of two initial features (AFs), AF-1 inside the N-terminal as well as AF-2 within the ligand-binding website. It absolutely was not too long ago established that the particular ER antagonist ICI 182,780 (ICI) serves as an ER agonist inside uterus involving rodents together with mutations in the this website Im or her alpha dog AF-2. To guage the estrogen-like effects of ICI in various tissues, ovariectomized wild-type mice and rodents using strains in the ER leader AF-2 (Im alpha AF2 diplomas) have been treated with ICI, estradiol, or even vehicle for 3 wk. Estradiol improved your trabecular and also cortical bone tissue size as well as the uterine fat, whilst this lowered body fat mass, thymus fat, and the progress dish elevation throughout wild-type but not throughout Im or her alpha AF-2 diplomas these animals.

Ulmen handbuch zur

  ULMEN HANDBUCH ZUR >> DOWNLOAD LINK vk.cc/c7jKeU

  ULMEN HANDBUCH ZUR >> READ ONLINE bit.do/fSmfG

        ulmen-arten laubenulme krankheiten

  Die Ulmengewächse (Ulmaceae) umfassen sieben Gattungen mit rund 60 bis 70 Arten, die in den tropischen, subtropischen und vor allem in den gemäßigten Zonen der Familie, Ulmengewächse (Ulmaceae). Gattung, Ulmus. Art, minor Mehr Infos unter ulmen-handbuch.de/handbuch/ulmus/u_minor.html. Das Handbuch der Ulmengewächse bietet einen Gesamtüberblick über die Familie der Ulmengewächse im allgemeinen und die eigentlichen Ulmen (Gattung: Ulmus) im (2016b): Handbuch der Ulmengewächse. Version 2.0. Im Internet unter: ulmen-handbuch.de. [30] MACKENTHUN, G. (2016c): Ulmen für die Zukunft Ulmen sind eigentlich die idealen Stadtbäume. Leider wurden die meisten Ulmen durch die Ulmenwelke in den letzten ulmen-handbuch.de. Gordon Mackenthun aus dem Jahr 2010 als die höchste bis dahin bekannte Bergulme in Europa. ulmen-handbuch.de/handbuch/ulmus/u_glabra.html". 2020) wurden die Ulmen auf 60 Untersuchungsflächen (je 2500 m2) des Projekts "Lebendige Luppe" kartiert. Im Herbst 2020 erfolgte eine Artbestimmung derDort kommen ebenfalls Ulmen vor und dort kommt auch ein Pilz, Ophiostoma himal-ulmi, vor, der mit dem Erreger eng verwandt ist. Allerdings hatten Wirt und

https://hevaxadoher.tumblr.com/post/691895287443243008/zircon-multiscanner-pro-sl-bedienungsanleitung-hd, https://jipececimumu.tumblr.com/post/691895284212563968/gastro-sandra-bedienungsanleitung-medion, https://hevaxadoher.tumblr.com/post/691895287443243008/zircon-multiscanner-pro-sl-bedienungsanleitung-hd, https://qukasuvilera.tumblr.com/post/691895198445404160/fs1130mfp-handbuch, https://jipececimumu.tumblr.com/post/691895344964960256/vas-5903-handbuch-ipad.

Lenvatinib promotes microglial tissues to aid myelin trash wholesale along with increase neural repairment right after spine injury

Following towards the bisexual is a unisexual period, symbolized by the made easier parthenogenetic grownup period which in turn falls short of nearly all parts of the actual adult morphology. The particular grownups regarding P. diva sp. and. vary from some other species of having and the like (One particular) a oral cavity spool with 4 #Link# robust cuticular watering holes additionally 8 primary mouth side; (2) leaf-like clavoscalids that happen to be quite wide basally and filter distally, and have more than Twenty-two transverse mix wall space; (Several) a new firmly sclerotized double-organ made up of a number of rami; (Several) huge spinoscalids of second strip shorter compared to clavoscalids, (A few) small sort N spinoscalids regarding next strip together with claw-tips and with a dual line of five the teeth along with distally using a dual row associated with minute denticles; (Some) a good anterior edge of the lorica along with bicuspid protrusions and certain crescent-shaped ornamentations; (Several) a midventral plica using five bar-like transversal increased side. Distinct options that come with your Higgins-larva are generally (One particular) small clavoscalids with extensive 2nd sections; (Three) a dog collar with more effective flosculi located in little pits; posterolateral setae getting short however strong and also pod-like. The research additionally unveiled fresh specifics of your double-organ in the grown-up and the buccal buildings with the Higgins-larva.P>The mountain wood beetle (MPB), one of the most significant bug involving lodgepole this tree in tremendous mountain developed North america, distribute northeastward straight into lodgepole times jack this tree compounds inside the boreal woodland associated with Alberta in the year 2006. The particular MPB vectors about three type of blue-stain fungus infection, which usually give rise to the success of the beetles. These kinds of fungi ended up singled out from MPB larvae and galleries and museums in many lodgepole a jack pinus radiata stands inside the Grandes Prairie area regarding northwestern Alberta inside the fall 2005 and also winter and also springtime 3 years ago. Fungus infection have been recoverable through over 95% associated with art gallery systems. A few fungi #Link# had been likewise commonplace but Ophiostoma montium had been probably the most frequently remote fungus at each and every testing stage, singled out through 72% for you to 90% involving collection systems weighed against 63% to 78% pertaining to Grosmannia clavigera, along with 61% in order to 86% for Leptographium longiclavatum. Ophiostoma montium along with H. clavigera had been singled out through much more caterpillar compared to collection trials, with all the reverse correct regarding M. longiclavatum. Most #Link# art gallery methods included numerous fungus using about three fungus for every gallery system staying more widespread in the fall and winter and 2 fungi more prevalent in the year. The mixture associated with G. clavigera along with D. longiclavatum ended up being less frequent between art gallery methods using a couple of fungi when compared with both of the pairwise combos that contain E. montium. Yeast epidemic had been the same earlier mentioned and down below snow level. The incidence from the three fungi didn't vary significantly among appears tried early in the year yet appears with increased Gary.

Lovely dead elm tree (if that is what you are), I am leaving you there for now. #ulmusminor #elmtrees #mincio #parcodelmincio #lamacchinafissa #firewood #niceshapes #ruralgardens #readingretreatsinruralitaly #olmocampestre #grafiosi #alberomorto #fungoascomicete #ophiostoma ulmi (presso La Macchina Fissa) https://www.instagram.com/p/CAGPN6cpZD_/?igshid=1m761irfa1x77

A duckweed-covered canal in an elm forest in Dublin, Ireland, shows the reflection of three of many elms (Ulmus minor), that died from a fungus that was introduced from Asia into Europe and America more than a century ago, and to which the elms are slowly developing resistance.

found @putin-on-the-ritz

Dutch Elm Disease

Why is the ailment afflicting elm trees called “Dutch Elm Disease?” Well according to BioForest Technologies Inc. “a young phytopathologist from the Netherlands named Bea Schwartz first isolated a fungus from dying elms in 1921, which would give rise to the Dutch elm disease moniker. Another Dutch researcher, Christine Buisman, would also be instrumental in showing the disease was, in fact,…

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Bellicidia incompta (syn. Bacidia incompta)

Sap groove lichen

This lichen forms a granular or mealy crust of pale gray, green, or fawn in the wonded and sap-tracked areas of elm trees in Eurasia, with smaller populations in Tunisia and North America. Currently, European elm populations are being absolutly desimated by Dutch elm disease--caused another, less friendly fungus, Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. Fewer elms means fewer species that rely on elms for survival, such as B. incompta. In a lot of ways, that’s just how the system of natural selection works, but that doesn’t mean we have to feel nothing about it, or that we shouldn’t investigate what is happening and figure out our part in it, and mitigate the destruction where possible. All those things can exist at once and that’s just what it means to live on this planet. 

images: source | source | source | source

===General information=== Dutch elm disease (DED) is a serious disease of elms caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. It is a type of disease known as a vascular wilt because the fungus blocks the vascular (water transport) system, causing the branches to wilt and die. It is spread by elm bark beetles. Damage is usually seen in summer and early autumn. It only occurs in Ulmus spp. (elms) and Zelkova. The symptoms are as follows: At any time in the summer months, all or part of the foliage suddenly turns yellow, then wilts, shrivels and dies Peeling off the bark from affected branches will reveal brown streaks in the outer wood, which appear as a broken or continuous brown ring in the outer growth ring if the branch is cut across All attempts to prevent the spread of DED have been long since abandoned, except in specific areas such as the Isle of Man and Brighton and Hove. However, dead trees are a safety hazard and should be felled promptly. Native elms should not be planted, as they will almost inevitably succumb to DED. Zelkova spp. appear less badly damaged. Resistant hybrid elms have appeared on the market in recent years, but gardeners should note that whilst these are attractive trees, they usually have a different growth habit to those that have been lost and do not exactly replace them. Chemical control No chemical control is feasible. Protectant fungicides were injected into trunks in the early stages of the outbreak, but this was required annually and soon abandoned as impractical. It is also completely impractical to control the beetle vectors. The disease is known as ‘Dutch’ because important early research on it was carried out in the Netherlands. It is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi which was accidentally introduced to the UK from the USA in the late 1960s on imported elm logs. Prior to this, northern Europe already had a form of DED caused by another related fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi, and for some time it was not realised that the fungus in the UK was different. O. novo-ulmi is not native to the USA and its true origin is unknown. The fungus is spread by elm bark beetles, particularly Scolytus scolytus. Beetles breed in dead and dying elms, including those killed by the disease, where the larvae tunnel in the bark and outermost wood, forming galleries. The fungus produces sticky spores in these galleries, which contaminate the newly hatched adult beetles as they emerge. They then fly to healthy elms, where they feed on young bark and introduce the pathogen into the conducting tissue (xylem) of the tree. The fungus grows in the xylem, blocking water flow and causing rapid wilting and death. It can spread rapidly down rows of hedgerow elms through root grafts formed between adjacent trees. The beetles tend to attack mature trees over 20-years-old, and therefore the first wave of the disease in the early 1970s was followed by a lull while the trees regenerated from suckers. But these regenerated trees have in turn succumbed. The disease has not quite reached the northern limits of elms and some remain in Scotland. ===*Useful websites=== https://ift.tt/2mnjK27 https://ift.tt/2kQWknV https://ift.tt/1WHq3b6 *Information sourced from the above websites

The growth of aggressive and non-aggressive strains of Ophiostoma ulmi in susceptible and resistant Elms, a sc

http://dlvr.it/PZPr5C

Abstract

Insect Populations associated with Leptographium terebrantis, a Fungus that Contributes to Southern Pine Decline

    Southern pine decline is a disease complex that attacks the roots of stressed pine trees in the southeastern United States. Healthy trees become predisposed to bark-feeding beetles and weevils, and these insects introduce fungi into the roots as they feed, including Leptographium, Grosmannia, and Ophiostoma species. These fungi occlude xylem, blocking water uptake and staining the wood blue. In this study, we investigate the effects on insect populations from one of these species that has been associated with decline: Leptographium terebrantis. A loblolly pine stand in Eufaula, Alabama will be monitored with insect traps collected bimonthly for both insect diversity and for bark-feeding beetles and weevils of concern. For a year, the stand will be free of the fungus, to determine the insect populations already present, and the three years after will continue to monitor after the fungus has been introduced. Additionally, insects will be captured and fungal spores that are associated with pine decline on their bodies will be attempted to be identified to genus-species based on wavelengths from a method called hyperspectral interferometry to determine a more efficient method of prediction.

Compost DED Education

The City of Saskatoon is acting on the instances of Dutch Elm Disease found in the city! An informational pamphlet about Dutch Elm Disease DED will be given to those who arrive at the compost depot with elm over the summer 2021 months! The pamphlet will illustrate the dangers to the city urban forest if elm is disposed of incorrectly, and why the guidelines are in place to prevent a pandemic from…

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===General information=== Dutch elm disease (DED) is a serious disease of elms caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. It is a type of disease known as a vascular wilt because the fungus blocks the vascular (water transport) system, causing the branches to wilt and die. It is spread by elm bark beetles. Damage is usually seen in summer and early autumn. It only occurs in Ulmus spp. (elms) and Zelkova. The symptoms are as follows: At any time in the summer months, all or part of the foliage suddenly turns yellow, then wilts, shrivels and dies Peeling off the bark from affected branches will reveal brown streaks in the outer wood, which appear as a broken or continuous brown ring in the outer growth ring if the branch is cut across All attempts to prevent the spread of DED have been long since abandoned, except in specific areas such as the Isle of Man and Brighton and Hove. However, dead trees are a safety hazard and should be felled promptly. Native elms should not be planted, as they will almost inevitably succumb to DED. Zelkova spp. appear less badly damaged. Resistant hybrid elms have appeared on the market in recent years, but gardeners should note that whilst these are attractive trees, they usually have a different growth habit to those that have been lost and do not exactly replace them. Chemical control No chemical control is feasible. Protectant fungicides were injected into trunks in the early stages of the outbreak, but this was required annually and soon abandoned as impractical. It is also completely impractical to control the beetle vectors. The disease is known as ‘Dutch’ because important early research on it was carried out in the Netherlands. It is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi which was accidentally introduced to the UK from the USA in the late 1960s on imported elm logs. Prior to this, northern Europe already had a form of DED caused by another related fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi, and for some time it was not realised that the fungus in the UK was different. O. novo-ulmi is not native to the USA and its true origin is unknown. The fungus is spread by elm bark beetles, particularly Scolytus scolytus. Beetles breed in dead and dying elms, including those killed by the disease, where the larvae tunnel in the bark and outermost wood, forming galleries. The fungus produces sticky spores in these galleries, which contaminate the newly hatched adult beetles as they emerge. They then fly to healthy elms, where they feed on young bark and introduce the pathogen into the conducting tissue (xylem) of the tree. The fungus grows in the xylem, blocking water flow and causing rapid wilting and death. It can spread rapidly down rows of hedgerow elms through root grafts formed between adjacent trees. The beetles tend to attack mature trees over 20-years-old, and therefore the first wave of the disease in the early 1970s was followed by a lull while the trees regenerated from suckers. But these regenerated trees have in turn succumbed. The disease has not quite reached the northern limits of elms and some remain in Scotland. ===*Useful websites=== https://ift.tt/2mnjK27 https://ift.tt/2kQWknV https://ift.tt/1WHq3b6 *Information sourced from the above websites

===General information=== Dutch elm disease (DED) is a serious disease of elms caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. It is a type of disease known as a vascular wilt because the fungus blocks the vascular (water transport) system, causing the branches to wilt and die. It is spread by elm bark beetles. Damage is usually seen in summer and early autumn. It only occurs in Ulmus spp. (elms) and Zelkova. The symptoms are as follows: At any time in the summer months, all or part of the foliage suddenly turns yellow, then wilts, shrivels and dies Peeling off the bark from affected branches will reveal brown streaks in the outer wood, which appear as a broken or continuous brown ring in the outer growth ring if the branch is cut across All attempts to prevent the spread of DED have been long since abandoned, except in specific areas such as the Isle of Man and Brighton and Hove. However, dead trees are a safety hazard and should be felled promptly. Native elms should not be planted, as they will almost inevitably succumb to DED. Zelkova spp. appear less badly damaged. Resistant hybrid elms have appeared on the market in recent years, but gardeners should note that whilst these are attractive trees, they usually have a different growth habit to those that have been lost and do not exactly replace them. Chemical control No chemical control is feasible. Protectant fungicides were injected into trunks in the early stages of the outbreak, but this was required annually and soon abandoned as impractical. It is also completely impractical to control the beetle vectors. The disease is known as ‘Dutch’ because important early research on it was carried out in the Netherlands. It is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi which was accidentally introduced to the UK from the USA in the late 1960s on imported elm logs. Prior to this, northern Europe already had a form of DED caused by another related fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi, and for some time it was not realised that the fungus in the UK was different. O. novo-ulmi is not native to the USA and its true origin is unknown. The fungus is spread by elm bark beetles, particularly Scolytus scolytus. Beetles breed in dead and dying elms, including those killed by the disease, where the larvae tunnel in the bark and outermost wood, forming galleries. The fungus produces sticky spores in these galleries, which contaminate the newly hatched adult beetles as they emerge. They then fly to healthy elms, where they feed on young bark and introduce the pathogen into the conducting tissue (xylem) of the tree. The fungus grows in the xylem, blocking water flow and causing rapid wilting and death. It can spread rapidly down rows of hedgerow elms through root grafts formed between adjacent trees. The beetles tend to attack mature trees over 20-years-old, and therefore the first wave of the disease in the early 1970s was followed by a lull while the trees regenerated from suckers. But these regenerated trees have in turn succumbed. The disease has not quite reached the northern limits of elms and some remain in Scotland. ===*Useful websites=== https://ift.tt/2mnjK27 https://ift.tt/2kQWknV https://ift.tt/1WHq3b6 *Information sourced from the above websites

===General information=== Dutch elm disease (DED) is a serious disease of elms caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. It is a type of disease known as a vascular wilt because the fungus blocks the vascular (water transport) system, causing the branches to wilt and die. It is spread by elm bark beetles. Damage is usually seen in summer and early autumn. It only occurs in Ulmus spp. (elms) and Zelkova. The symptoms are as follows: At any time in the summer months, all or part of the foliage suddenly turns yellow, then wilts, shrivels and dies Peeling off the bark from affected branches will reveal brown streaks in the outer wood, which appear as a broken or continuous brown ring in the outer growth ring if the branch is cut across All attempts to prevent the spread of DED have been long since abandoned, except in specific areas such as the Isle of Man and Brighton and Hove. However, dead trees are a safety hazard and should be felled promptly. Native elms should not be planted, as they will almost inevitably succumb to DED. Zelkova spp. appear less badly damaged. Resistant hybrid elms have appeared on the market in recent years, but gardeners should note that whilst these are attractive trees, they usually have a different growth habit to those that have been lost and do not exactly replace them. Chemical control No chemical control is feasible. Protectant fungicides were injected into trunks in the early stages of the outbreak, but this was required annually and soon abandoned as impractical. It is also completely impractical to control the beetle vectors. The disease is known as ‘Dutch’ because important early research on it was carried out in the Netherlands. It is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi which was accidentally introduced to the UK from the USA in the late 1960s on imported elm logs. Prior to this, northern Europe already had a form of DED caused by another related fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi, and for some time it was not realised that the fungus in the UK was different. O. novo-ulmi is not native to the USA and its true origin is unknown. The fungus is spread by elm bark beetles, particularly Scolytus scolytus. Beetles breed in dead and dying elms, including those killed by the disease, where the larvae tunnel in the bark and outermost wood, forming galleries. The fungus produces sticky spores in these galleries, which contaminate the newly hatched adult beetles as they emerge. They then fly to healthy elms, where they feed on young bark and introduce the pathogen into the conducting tissue (xylem) of the tree. The fungus grows in the xylem, blocking water flow and causing rapid wilting and death. It can spread rapidly down rows of hedgerow elms through root grafts formed between adjacent trees. The beetles tend to attack mature trees over 20-years-old, and therefore the first wave of the disease in the early 1970s was followed by a lull while the trees regenerated from suckers. But these regenerated trees have in turn succumbed. The disease has not quite reached the northern limits of elms and some remain in Scotland. ===*Useful websites=== https://ift.tt/2mnjK27 https://ift.tt/2kQWknV https://ift.tt/1WHq3b6 *Information sourced from the above websites

===General information=== Dutch elm disease (DED) is a serious disease of elms caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. It is a type of disease known as a vascular wilt because the fungus blocks the vascular (water transport) system, causing the branches to wilt and die. It is spread by elm bark beetles. Damage is usually seen in summer and early autumn. It only occurs in Ulmus spp. (elms) and Zelkova. The symptoms are as follows: At any time in the summer months, all or part of the foliage suddenly turns yellow, then wilts, shrivels and dies Peeling off the bark from affected branches will reveal brown streaks in the outer wood, which appear as a broken or continuous brown ring in the outer growth ring if the branch is cut across All attempts to prevent the spread of DED have been long since abandoned, except in specific areas such as the Isle of Man and Brighton and Hove. However, dead trees are a safety hazard and should be felled promptly. Native elms should not be planted, as they will almost inevitably succumb to DED. Zelkova spp. appear less badly damaged. Resistant hybrid elms have appeared on the market in recent years, but gardeners should note that whilst these are attractive trees, they usually have a different growth habit to those that have been lost and do not exactly replace them. Chemical control No chemical control is feasible. Protectant fungicides were injected into trunks in the early stages of the outbreak, but this was required annually and soon abandoned as impractical. It is also completely impractical to control the beetle vectors. The disease is known as ‘Dutch’ because important early research on it was carried out in the Netherlands. It is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulmi which was accidentally introduced to the UK from the USA in the late 1960s on imported elm logs. Prior to this, northern Europe already had a form of DED caused by another related fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi, and for some time it was not realised that the fungus in the UK was different. O. novo-ulmi is not native to the USA and its true origin is unknown. The fungus is spread by elm bark beetles, particularly Scolytus scolytus. Beetles breed in dead and dying elms, including those killed by the disease, where the larvae tunnel in the bark and outermost wood, forming galleries. The fungus produces sticky spores in these galleries, which contaminate the newly hatched adult beetles as they emerge. They then fly to healthy elms, where they feed on young bark and introduce the pathogen into the conducting tissue (xylem) of the tree. The fungus grows in the xylem, blocking water flow and causing rapid wilting and death. It can spread rapidly down rows of hedgerow elms through root grafts formed between adjacent trees. The beetles tend to attack mature trees over 20-years-old, and therefore the first wave of the disease in the early 1970s was followed by a lull while the trees regenerated from suckers. But these regenerated trees have in turn succumbed. The disease has not quite reached the northern limits of elms and some remain in Scotland. ===*Useful websites=== https://ift.tt/2mnjK27 https://ift.tt/2kQWknV https://ift.tt/1WHq3b6 *Information sourced from the above websites