Week 10: Digital Citizenship and Conflict: Social Media Governance

The ubiquitous nature of social media platforms has defined and will continue to define the contemporary world. Upcoming projections indicate rapid expansion in emerging countries, bringing the total number of social media users to around 58.4% of the global population (Statista, 2022). According to the eSafety Commissioner of the New South Wales Department of Education, "a good digital citizen" is someone who is able to make beneficial use of digital technology for social participation, communication, content creation, and consumption.

There are a lot of worries about the future of social media regulation, despite the fact that these platforms have helped people interact and share material, such as the proliferation of fake news, hate speech, and internet monitoring. Violent online conflicts highlight the power dynamics at play in the concept of digital citizenship. A perceived chasm has opened up between academic study and real-world issues faced by people because non-experts' perspectives are sorely lacking in discussions of information systems in the literature. People should talk about cyberbullying and other forms of online abuse on platforms where they do not know the perpetrators well.

The formation of "bad habits" might occur, however, when users constantly check their social media alerts out of FOMO and participate in negative self-comparisons (Walther et al., 2011). The correlation between social media usage and mental health is complex. Not only was social media usage substantially related to depression, but those suffering from depression were also more likely to use social media (Lin et al., 2016). Lowry et al. (2016) and Ransbotham et al. (2016) found that new digital vulnerabilities, such as cyber mobs and "sock puppet" accounts, are a major contributor to this negativity. These accounts spread objectionable speech and engage in social shaming. Teens may develop PTSD symptoms after being exposed to risky information on social media, such as cyberbullying, sexual solicitations, and explicit material (McHugh et al., 2018). Furthermore, Johnson (2018) reveals that individuals may become unable to differentiate between fair and unfair online behaviour due to "mob rules'' established by online organisations.

By outlining standards for appropriate conduct and content, social media governance helps platforms encourage responsible participation from its users. The resolution of these disputes and the preservation of digital citizenship values need for robust frameworks for social media administration. Since these forms of government must address many, and at times competing, interests, they are inherently complex. Digital communities that promote healthy relationships based on mutual regard, understanding, and accountability may be created when all parties involved pull together. Furthermore, Johnson (2018) reveals that individuals may become unable to differentiate between fair and unfair online behaviour due to "mob rules" established by online organisations.

References

Johnson, B.G. 2018, Tolerating and managing extreme speech on social media, Internet Research, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 1275-1291.

Lowry, P. B., Zhang, J., Wang, C. and Siponen, M. 2016, Why do adults engage in cyberbullying on social media? An integration of online disinhibition and deindividuation effects with the social structure and social learning model, Information Systems Research, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 962–986

McHugh, B. C., Wisniewski, P., Rosson, M. B. and Carroll, J. M. 2018, When social media traumatizes teens: The roles of online risk exposure, coping, and post-traumatic stress, Internet Research, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 1169-1188

Statista 2022, Social Media – Statistics and Facts, viewed 21 March 2023, <https://www.statista.com/topics/1164/social>

Walther, J. B., Liang, Y. J., De Andrea, D. C., Tong, S. T., Carr, C. T., Spottswood, E. L. and AmichaiHamburger, Y. 2011, The effect of feedback on identity shift in computer-mediated communication, Media Psychology, vol. 14, pp. 1–26.

Week 9: Gaming Communities, Social Gaming and Live Streaming

Especially in terms of its social aspects, video game culture has been steadily evolving over the past few decades. The video game industry has grown at a pace that puts it in direct competition with bigger names in the entertainment sector around the globe, despite the fact that it is just 40 years. On top of that, the video game industry is huge and seen as innovative due to the way it blends entertainment, technology, and culture (Sadakshi Kalyan Ramun, 2023). Thanks to "mobile technology" in the modern period, the gaming industry has evolved and reached a new demographic. It has now permeated "modern popular culture" to the point where "42% of Americans are gamers" (Chikhani, R, 2015). For instance, people of various ages must be conversant with Minecraft. The 91 million users around the world can't get enough of Minecraft, which is like an online Lego universe where you can construct anything you can imagine with blocks.

People that share an interest in a certain genre, style, or type of game come together to form gaming communities. More people than ever before are able to enjoy and participate in online gaming. Certain games have social features that allow players to meet other players from all around the world, form teams, and generally have a great time. Here players may share stories about their favourite games, offer one other advice on difficult tasks, and find new ways to do things. In a lot of games, working together is key. Joining a guild or other online community allows players to work together towards common goals, where they can strategize, collaborate, and practice their cooperation skills.With the rise of live-streaming Esports events to massive audiences in addition to the physical ones, a new social ecology has emerged, resembling that of broadcast professional sports in several respects (2018). Twitch, YouTube, and Facebook Live have given gamers a place to show off their skills and meet other people who share their passion. Half or more of the platform's users spend twenty hours or more each week watching other users play video games. The loyal user base is the key selling point of the site, according to many. As a result of this widespread participation, gaming becomes more of a social medium, with communities emerging around individual games, broadcasters, and the medium itself.

Even while gaming is merely a pastime for some, it may be a great method to meet new people and strengthen existing friendships (Sturart, K., 2013). Gamers offer a "playful space" where they can avoid physically tolerating bad behaviour, but certain users will inevitably "attract hateful [and] damaged" content (Sturart, K, 2013). Many people have found a creative outlet in game production, driven by the love of playing video games. Thanks to freely available technologies like Unity and Microsoft Visual Studio, indie game production has thrived, driven by programmers and amateurs. The growth of the gaming business, which provides players all over the globe with exciting and novel experiences, is a direct result of this creative explosion.

References

Chikhani, R, 2015, The History Of Gaming: An Evolving Community, Extra Crunch, viewed 19 May 2020, <https://techcrunch.com/2015/10/31/the-history-of-gaming-an-evolving-community/>

Pauline Huang 2023, Gaming Live Streaming: Building Online Communities for Esports Fans, YoloLiv, viewed 20 March 2024, <https://www.yololiv.com/blog/gaming-live-streaming-for-esports-fans/>

Social networking in gaming n.d., Internet Matters, viewed 20 March 2024, <https://www.internetmatters.org/resources/social-networking-in-gaming/>

Stuart, K, 2013, Gamer communities: the positive side, The Guardian, viewed 19 March 2024, <https://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2013/jul/31/gamer-communities-positive-side-twitter>

Taylor, TL 2018, Broadcasting ourselves (chapter 1), in Watch Me Play: Twitch and the Rise of Game Live Streaming, Princeton University Press, pp.1-23

Week 8: Digital Citizenship and Software literacy: Instagram Filters

The social comparison hypothesis put forward by Leon Festinger in 1954 states that "when unable to evaluate ourselves directly, we seek to satisfy this need for self-evaluation through comparison with other people" (Grogan, 2008). There are more than 2 billion people using Instagram per month, making it the number four social media platform globally (Statista, 2023). For what reason, therefore, is Instagram so engrossing? A popular feature is the well-known "filters" that transform you into a cute puppy or kitten, or a model even if you're not wearing any makeup at all at 6 in the morning. It all started with Instagram, but now filters are all over the place. We can use them to make our selfies and other photos appear brighter, muted, grungier, or more retro than they actually are. The term "filter" has grown significantly more important in today's digital culture (Rettberg J.W., 2014).

In its most unfiltered forms, selfies may disclose a lot that make them too genuine and forthright. The only way we can bring ourselves to publish these photos of ourselves is sometimes to put them through a filter that enhances the colors, overexposes the skin to disguise its flaws, or gives them a vintage vibe. Additional study indicates that young individuals who suffer from low self-esteem and have a negative perception of their bodies are more prone to using filters, which may amplify their negative perception of their own beauty.

With the new functionality that lets marketers see which stories were created by people who used their brand's filter in the last 24 hours, Instagram filters are a great way to get followers to generate content for your company. Those that utilise the filter and include your brand's handle in their articles will find this function very beneficial. Snapchat in particular embraced the idea of filters and edited photos as Instagram's popularity skyrocketed. On the other hand, social media and its accompanying beauty filters may promote unrealistic standards of beauty, which in turn can cause users to feel insecure about their own bodies and increase their risk of developing disorders like body dysmorphic disorder.

While filters certainly provide a dash of humour and, at times, a sense of self-worth, they are far from innocuous. The Wall Street Journal cited an internal Facebook memo that said the social media company is cognisant of the negative impact these applications have on women. As stated in the report, "32 percent of teen girls said that when they felt bad about their bodies, Instagram made them feel worse". Experts agree that social media filters contribute to negative mental health outcomes such as decreased self-esteem, confidence, and body dysmorphia, which in turn contribute to negative outcomes such as cosmetic surgeries (Genesis Rivas, 2024). Some forms of self-objectification, such as body dysmorphic disorder, may progress to more severe forms of mental illness.

As a young generation who regularly uses social media apps, especially  filters on Instagram or Tiktok, I see they have both positive and negative sides. Even Though it's for entertainment, considering and consciously using filters like AR is necessary so that you don't depend on those unrealistic and know how to appreciate your body and just be yourself.

References

Rettberg, JW 2014, Filtered Reality, Seeing Ourselves Through Technology, pp. 20–32.

‌Festinger, L. 1954, A Theory of Social Comparison Processes, Human Relations, vol. 7, no.2 p.117–140.

GOWAAA 2020, Why Instagram Filter Marketing Is Ever More Important For Your Brand Now, GOWAAA, viewed 12 March 2024, <https://www.gowaaa.com/post/why-instagram-filter-marketing-is-ever-more-important-for-your-brand-now>

Rivas, G 2021, The Mental Health Impacts of Beauty Filters on Social Media Shouldn’t Be Ignored — Here’s Why, InStyle, viewed 12 March 2024, <https://www.instyle.com/beauty/social-media-filters-mental-health> Wells, G, Horwitz, J & Seetharaman, D 2021, Facebook Knows Instagram Is Toxic for Teen Girls, Company Documents Show, Wall Street Journal, 14 September, viewed 12 March 2024, <https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-knows-instagram-is-toxic-for-teen-girls-company-documents-show-11631620739>

WEEK 7: Digital Citizenship and Health Education: Body Modification on Visual Social Media

The use of social media has grown in importance in modern society. The cultural impact of social media cannot be overstated, what with its predicted 3.6 billion users globally (Statista, 2022). The rise of social media platforms has opened up new avenues of expression, connection, and communication that were previously unimaginable. Negative effects on people's self-esteem and mental health are another concern. The idea that social media may have a positive effect on body image became extremely plausible about ten years ago (Andsager, 2014). Health education faces unique hurdles in this digital era due to the confluence of personal expression, social media, and technology. Body alteration depictions and discussions have become ubiquitous on visual social media platforms as people increasingly use these sites to exhibit their own personalities and life experiences. Images and words that could promote negative body image thoughts are abundant on social media, where users constantly portray themselves in a positive way. The problem is that it may also lead to unhealthy comparisons and exaggerated ideas of beauty.

Researchers found that 42 percent of plastic surgeons meet patients who want to alter their look for the sake of social media platforms like Instagram (Dorfman, Vaca, Mahmood, Fine & Schierle, 2018). The fact that this has happened shows how much of an impact social media has had on people changing their bodies, especially considering how little of an impact it would have had not long ago. There are pros and cons to body alteration on social media. Pros include the chance to make money off of it, while cons include the potential for harm. Ads, magazines, and online platforms all contribute to the dissemination of unrealistic and idealized body types (Khanna, 2019). Excessive exposure to these pictures, particularly among younger generations, has the potential to promote negative body image stereotypes and self-esteem issues.

Participation in social media decreased participants' happiness with their looks, according to one longitudinal research (Stieger et al., 2022). An individual's unfavorable perception of their physique was immediately exacerbated after interacting with social media postings. By curating the photos, videos, and text that they publish on social media, individuals essentially build their own unique online persona. Most users choose to generate a biased positive self-presentation (Gonzáles and Hancock, 2011). For pictures, this usually means releasing overly edited versions that have been digitally altered using tools like Photoshop and various camera angles to make the subjects seem their best.

These results provide further evidence that concerns over social media's potential detrimental effect on self-perception of one's physique may be well-founded. Social media use is associated with lower levels of satisfaction with one's physical appearance and, in the long run, with worries about one's body image. Social media users may be encouraged to cut down on their use to lessen the impact of these negative consequences. One example is the study mentioned earlier. On a daily basis, participants spent an average of 73 minutes actively engaging with social media (e.g., posting to Facebook, tweeting, and sending WhatsApp messages) and 90 minutes passively engaging (e.g., viewing videos on YouTube, reading Facebook posts, and looking at pictures on Snapchat) - almost three hours in total. If you want to lessen the negative impact of social media on your body image, try following other profiles and posts. Pay special attention to postings that encourage a positive self-image.

References

Dorfman, R.G., Vaca, E.E., Mahmood, E., Fine, N.A. & Schierle, C.F. 2018, Plastic Surgery-Related Hashtag Utilization on Instagram: Implications for Education and Marketin, Aesthetic Surgery Journal, vol. 38, no. 3, p. 332.

Julie L. Andsager 2014, Research Directions in Social Media and Body Image, Sex Role, vol. 71, p. 407- 413, <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-014-0430-4>

Khanna, K., & Kothari, H. 2019, Assessment of Effect of Digital Branding on Brand Image of A Bank, A Study on Promotional Tools as Determinant For Purchasing Decision Amongst Rural Consumers, vol. 6, no.2, p. 56-61

Gonzales, A. L., & Hancock, J. T. 2011, Mirror, mirror on my facebook wall: Effects of exposure to facebook on self-esteem, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, vol. 14, p. 79-83.

Stieger, S., Graf, H. M., Riegler, S. P., Biebl, S., & Swami, V. 2022, Engagement with social media content results in lower appearance satisfaction: An experience sampling study using a wrist-worn wearable and a physical analogue scale, Body Image, vol. 43, p. 232-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.09.009

Stefan Stieger Ph.D. 2023, Does Social Media Have a Negative Impact on Body Image?, Psychology and Science, viewed 10 March 2024, <https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/psychology-and-science/202211/does-social-media-have-a-negative-impact-on-body-image>

WEEK 6:  Social Media Influencers and the Slow Fashion Movement

While fast fashion has gained in popularity in recent years, it has also become the fashion industry's leading cause of environmental and social pollution (Pookulangara & Shephard, 2013). The fashion sector has surpassed all others in terms of pollution due to its manufacturing methods and the incessant need to always upgrade one's wardrobe. Consumers persist in purchasing non-recyclable, low-quality goods, leading to an increase in harmful trash (Joung, 2014). Sustainable fashion emerged as a response to the detrimental effects of quick fashion manufacturing.

The principles of sustainable fashion include local production techniques, slower manufacturing, and less hazardous fabrics (Jung & Jin, 2014). Reducing the detrimental impacts on the environment and society is one of the main objectives of sustainable fashion. Several materials that fit this description include bamboo, a quickly growing renewable resource; organic cotton, which is grown using less hazardous pesticides and fertilisers; and recycling old garments. Buyers said that they do not purchase sustainable fashion because of worries about cost, availability, quality, and ease of use (Lai, Z., Henninger, C.E. & Alevizou, P.J., 2017). This has obvious practical ramifications: slow fashion must be sold at a higher price due to the costs associated with ethical fashion techniques. It might be difficult for consumers to find slow fashion since it often takes more effort to research and acquire. Given the worrisome pace of environmental deterioration, reducing resource use and waste creation is considered a feasible approach.

Customers are able to engage with brands more readily and make better, more informed purchases when they utilise social media (Lay, 2017). Sharing content online has been ubiquitous due to social media, and research has shown that doing so enhances people's satisfaction with their own apparel (Duan, 2018). You could see Instagram influencers advertising products using popular words like "eco," "green," "slow," and "ethical" because it's profitable. Unfortunately, many people have no idea what these phrases signify. For example, a number of influencers from the fashion, beauty, and lifestyle sectors have partnered with fast fashion retailer H&M to promote their products on social media platforms such as Instagram, YouTube, and TikTok. This company's marketing campaigns have included collaborations with several famous faces, including Gigi Hadid, Billie Eilish, and Nicki Minaj. These influential people may help marketers reach a wider audience by promoting products using popular hashtags.

References

Duan, J. 2018, How Posting Purchases on social media influences happiness: The role of self-esteem, The Journal of Social Media in Society, vol.7, no.1, p.61-77

Joung, H. M. 2014, Fast-fashion consumers’ post-purchase behaviors, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, vol.42, no.8, p. 688-697

Jung, S., & Jin, B. 2014, A theoretical investigation of slow fashion: sustainable future of the apparel industry, International Journal of Consumer Studies, vol. 38, no.5, p.510-519

Lai, Z., Henninger, C.E. & Alevizou, P.J. 2017, Sustainability in Fashion A Cradle to Upcycle Approach, 1st edn, Palgrave, London.

Lay, R. 2017, Digital transformation - the ultimate challenge for the fashion industry, viewed 20 February 2024, <https://www2.deloitte.com/ch/en/pages/consumer-industrial-products/articles/ultimatechallenge-fashion-industry-digital-age.html>

Ozdamar-Ertekin, Z., & Atik, D. 2015, Sustainable markets: Motivating factors, barriers, and remedies for mobilization of slow fashion, Journal of Macromarketing, vol.35, no.1, p.53–69

Pookulangara, S., & Shephard, A. 2013, Slow fashion movement: Understanding consumer perceptions—An exploratory study, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, vol.20, no.2, p. 200-206

WEEK 5: What is Digital Citizenship? Hashtag Publics, Political Engagement and Activism

Thanks to the widespread dissemination of information made possible by the internet, a new public sphere has emerged (law et al., 2018). "digital citizenship" encompasses a wide range of characteristics, including the ability to access and make good use of digital technology, as well as the knowledge, skills, and educational background necessary to do so (Mossberger, 2007). It delves at the ways in which internet petitions, viral campaigns, and hashtags have boosted social causes and prompted political shifts. Online activism has the potential to promote social justice movements, demand changes in policies, and make political leaders answer to their constituents, according to the article.

The younger generation's increased engagement in politics and political discourse is one shift I've seen in the last few years of my online life. Younger internet users, especially those on Twitter, are taking use of their position as digital citizens to learn more about politics, have meaningful conversations about these topics, and raise awareness about global political concerns. By bringing together people in virtual communities, this kind of activism is able to impact public policy and social change. This shows that being a good digital citizen is about more than just taking responsibility for one's actions; it's also about actively changing the online public realm in a way that benefits society and politics.

In this research, we set out to visually examine how the #ShoutYourAbortion hashtag campaign has been represented on Instagram. Protests and social movements mostly use social networking sites (Markam, 2016). Instagram users who want to make a difference should do more than just share infographics; nevertheless, even if they can't afford to do more, at least they're getting the word out. To a large extent, I attribute the increased societal awareness among social media users to the relative ease of this kind of action.

References:

Brown, D 2018, 19 Million Tweets Later: A look at MeToo a year after the hashtag went viral, USA Today

Mossberger, K., Tolbert, C.J. and McNeal, R.S. 2007, Digital citizenship: The Internet, society, and participation. MIt Press.

Markham T. 2016, Review essay: Social media, politics and protest, Media, Culture & Society, vol. 38, no. 6, p. 946–957 https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443716665101

WEEK 4: Digital Community and Fandom: Reality TV Case Study

New forms of fan engagement, including interactive and immersive content, have emerged as a result of the merging of reality television with online communities. Much with other types of media, reality TV shows quickly become hot topics. In today's entertainment landscape, reality TV has established a solid foundation and shows no signs of going anywhere. Yet, reality television as a whole is reviled by both critics and spectators. It piqued my curiosity since, "Reality TV as a trigger of everyday political talk in a net-based public sphere," political discourse often takes place in online discussion forums associated with reality television (Graham and Haijru's, 2011) .

Nowadays, people who watch reality TV (or any kind of media) can connect with people all over the world in real time, share their thoughts on the show, learn about interesting subjects, and form communities based on shared interests—an experience that was previously unimaginable. Reality TV shows frequently have their own social media accounts on platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, where fans can enjoy promotions, share memes, and engage in conversation about the show. Lightheartedly, reality TV programmes which help the show build a loyal fan base, like any kind of entertainment, have the power to unite viewers and initiate thought-provoking discussions. 

Here we see how reality TV show "MasterChef Australia" made good use of show-specific hashtags to make social media more interactive. The programme allows viewers all around the globe to respond and comment on the culinary competition in real-time using the hashtag #MasterChefAU, creating a virtual community. With this hashtag, viewers are encouraged to get involved by discussing the challenges and candidates, making predictions, and more. The use of hashtags is crucial because it allows viewers to continue engaging with the content even after the show has ended, on the other side of the screen. In general, "MasterChef Australia" fans feel more connected and excited than ever before because of the show's official hashtags, which have turned social media into a participatory platform.

References

Jenna Jaehnig 2022, “Is reality TV really all that bad? The short answer is yes”, The Michigan Daily, <https://www.michigandaily.com/tv/is-reality-tv-really-all-that-bad-the-short-answer-is-yes/>

Graham, T & Haijru, A 2011, ‘Reality TV as a trigger of everyday political talk in the net-based public sphere’, European Journal of Communication, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 19-24.

WEEK 3: How does Tumblr function as a digital community?

David Karp launched the popular microblogging service Tumblr in 2007 so users could share and debate thoughts on a wide range of subjects. Everyone is free to express themselves and be themselves in our online community. Users of Tumblr may keep online diaries or blogs, exchange material related to their hobbies, and reblog articles, images, or videos. Tumblr may not have the same level of visibility as Instagram or Facebook, but it is nonetheless home to a large community of people who are actively working to share essential information and promote political change. This platform is great for online communication since it helps users find others who share their interests and strengthens relationships between them. Moreover, it allows individuals to easily share and circulate images, gifs and text. In 2014 Tumblr was ranked the second largest microblogging service after twitter (Chang et al. 2014)

Unrestricted inclusion and helpful tools that let users discover their "people" on Tumblr are what make the site work as a digital community. "You can be more anonymous, you can really embrace your interests, you can connect over that." (McCracken 2020, pp. 36-37) 

Those whose identities are underrepresented on other social media platforms have also grown to love Tumblr because of the previously described features. Tumblr users have reported feeling better about themselves after visiting the site to learn more about gender and sexual identities, among other things (Byron, Robards, Hanckel, Vivienne, and Churchill, 2019). Because Tumblr places more of a focus on bigger communities than Facebook does on individuals' personal social networks, people have been able to achieve this.

Plus, it's a breeze for people to send and receive text, GIFs, and photos. When it came to microblogging services in 2014, Tumblr was second only to Twitter (Chang et al. 2014). Tumblr has developed into a unique online community where users can join together to share content and create virtual homes for one another with these objectives in mind.

References

Allison McCracken, Chapter 3 ‘Going Down the Rabbit Hole: An Interview with Amanda Brennan, Head of Content Insights and Social, Tumblr’ in a tumblr book: platform and cultures eds Allison McCracken, Alexander Cho, Louisa Stein, and Indira Neill Hoch (University of Michigan Press: 2020), https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.11537055

Byron, P., Robards, B., Hanckel, B., Vivienne, S. & Churchill, B. 2019, ‘”Hey, i’m having these experiences": Tumblr use and young people’s queer (dis)connections’, International Journal of Communication, vol. 13, p. 2245.

Chang, Y., Tang, L., Inagaki, Y. and Liu, Y., 2014, What is tumblr: A statistical overview and comparison, ACM SIGKDD explorations newsletter, 16(1), pp. 21-29.