The Cunning Agha and Hidden Riches

Among the Aghas, Bektash Agha stood out as the most cunning. He amassed wealth through deceitful means and concealed it in a treasure hidden beneath the pool in his garden.

Grand Viziers and Trade Ventures

During a period in history, viziers and even Grand Viziers engaged in trade activities. Grand Viziers like Dervish Pasha dispatched expeditions to distant lands such as Baghdad, Basra, India, and Persia to import valuable commodities like pearls and cloth, which were then sold in collaboration with traders.

Turbulent Rule and Rebellions

The dominance of the Aghas persisted for two years, marked by increasing unrest fueled by dissatisfaction over ‘ulufe’ payments. Rebellion reached its peak outside the residence of the Sheikhulislam, with protesters declaring the Ottoman Empire in turmoil. Utilizing a ‘fatwa’ obtained forcefully, they orchestrated the downfall of Queen Mother Kosem Sultan.

The Fall of the Aghas and New Leadership

As the Aghas lost their protector and succumbed to execution one by one, the reins of power shifted. Successive changes in Grand Viziers ensued, ultimately ending the era dominated by Queen Mother Turhan Sultan with the ascension of Kopriilu Mehmet Pasha.

Reform Efforts and Financial Oversight

Historical accounts highlight the efforts of leaders like Tarhuncu Ahmet Pasha to address the state’s financial challenges. In 1604, he initiated a campaign against bribery, targeting high-ranking officials who accepted bribes. This initiative aimed to reform the treasury and restore fiscal integrity Istanbul Walking Tour.

Katip Qelebi’s Memoirs and Reform Proposals

Katip Qelebi, in his renowned memoirs, recounted efforts to address the treasury’s woes during Sultan Mehmet IV’s reign. He prepared a comprehensive treatise divided into four parts, outlining measures to improve governance and financial management. Despite initial skepticism, Katip Qelebi hoped that future sovereigns would heed the proposed reforms and take decisive action for the empire’s benefit.

Unimaginable Loss and Sorrow

In the aftermath of devastation, we encountered scenes of profound grief and despair.

A Heartrending Sight

Entering the next house, we found two women, one elderly and the other young, engaged in a haunting ritual. Rocking back and forth, they repeated sorrowful words: “I had a home, and now it’s gone; I had a husband, now I’m a widow; I had children, now I have only one.” Their actions spoke volumes—beating their heads and wringing their hands, they mourned their irreparable losses.

Survivors’ Sorrow

These women were survivors of a massacre, returning home for the first time since the tragedy. Their courage to return was fueled by the presence of foreigners like us or Mr. Baring, offering protection amidst their fears. Yet, their anguish was palpable as they keened, lamenting over their shattered lives.

The Resonance of Grief

As we ventured further, we encountered more grieving souls. Some sat upon the rubble that once marked the entrances to their homes, while others paced before their doors, their anguished cries echoing through the desolate streets. Tears were scarce in this sea of mourning—instead, there was a profound sense of desolation, a dry and relentless sorrow that had drained them of tears long before Tour Packages Balkan.

A Collective Lament

As we continued, more joined our procession, swelling our ranks to hundreds, mostly comprised of women and children. Their mournful cries followed us wherever we went, a chorus of sorrow that seemed to pierce the heavens.

Understanding Batak

Before delving deeper into these harrowing events, it’s essential to provide context about Batak.

A Community Shattered

Batak was once a thriving settlement boasting nine hundred houses and an estimated population of 8,000 to 9,000 inhabitants. Unfortunately, due to the lack of reliable census data in Turkey, the exact figures remain uncertain. However, the conventional estimation of five persons per household often falls short in the context of Bulgaria.

In the wake of unimaginable tragedy, Batak’s once-vibrant community lay in ruins, its people shattered by the horrors they endured.

Extensive Archaeological Endeavors

Early Excavations and Discoveries

In 1960, exploration of Turnovo’s historical sites commenced, focusing on the south transverse fortress wall and the Patriarchal complex. Subsequent years saw significant revelations, with 1963 marking the discovery of a small church in the square in front of the Palace and the excavation of a residential district on the west slope of the hill “Momina Krepost.”

Expansion of Excavations

The scope of archaeological endeavors expanded notably after 1966, following a government decree aimed at developing Turnovo as a historical, cultural, and tourist destination. Spearheaded by a Public Committee and involving a collaboration between archaeologists, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, and the Archaeological Museum in Turnovo, the project gained momentum.

Focus Areas and Findings

The archaeological focus centered on key sites such as the central capital fortress, the monastery “Velikata Lavra,” and the church “Sveti Dimitur.” Detailed examinations were conducted on Tsarevets Hill, unraveling the architectural complexities of the north and west fortress walls Private Tours Istanbul, along with associated defenses, gates, towers, and dwellings. Particularly significant was the exploration of the Castle of Bulgarian Tzars and the Patriarchate, shedding light on both secular and clerical powers during The Second Bulgarian Kingdom.

Rich Discoveries

The extensive excavations yielded remarkable findings, including over 500 dwellings, 23 Middle Age churches, and a plethora of artifacts. These discoveries provided valuable insights not only into architectural styles but also into the craft industry, lifestyle, and cultural practices of the society during that era.

Unveiling Historical Layers

A crucial aspect of the excavation involved deciphering the stratification of Turnovo’s history, spanning from the Thracian settlement through the early Byzantium town and the early Middle Age settlement, up to the emergence of the capital Turnovo town. Additionally, the fate of the monuments under the rule of the Ottoman Empire was meticulously examined, enriching our understanding of Turnovo’s complex historical narrative.

Extensive Archaeological Endeavors

Early Excavations and Discoveries

In 1960, exploration of Turnovo’s historical sites commenced, focusing on the south transverse fortress wall and the Patriarchal complex. Subsequent years saw significant revelations, with 1963 marking the discovery of a small church in the square in front of the Palace and the excavation of a residential district on the west slope of the hill “Momina Krepost.”

Expansion of Excavations

The scope of archaeological endeavors expanded notably after 1966, following a government decree aimed at developing Turnovo as a historical, cultural, and tourist destination. Spearheaded by a Public Committee and involving a collaboration between archaeologists, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, and the Archaeological Museum in Turnovo, the project gained momentum.

Focus Areas and Findings

The archaeological focus centered on key sites such as the central capital fortress, the monastery “Velikata Lavra,” and the church “Sveti Dimitur.” Detailed examinations were conducted on Tsarevets Hill, unraveling the architectural complexities of the north and west fortress walls Private Tours Istanbul, along with associated defenses, gates, towers, and dwellings. Particularly significant was the exploration of the Castle of Bulgarian Tzars and the Patriarchate, shedding light on both secular and clerical powers during The Second Bulgarian Kingdom.

Rich Discoveries

The extensive excavations yielded remarkable findings, including over 500 dwellings, 23 Middle Age churches, and a plethora of artifacts. These discoveries provided valuable insights not only into architectural styles but also into the craft industry, lifestyle, and cultural practices of the society during that era.

Unveiling Historical Layers

A crucial aspect of the excavation involved deciphering the stratification of Turnovo’s history, spanning from the Thracian settlement through the early Byzantium town and the early Middle Age settlement, up to the emergence of the capital Turnovo town. Additionally, the fate of the monuments under the rule of the Ottoman Empire was meticulously examined, enriching our understanding of Turnovo’s complex historical narrative.

The Arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans

Background

The Slavs, originating from the eastern regions of the Russian steppe, arrived in the Balkan Peninsula around the 5th century. Over the next two and a half centuries, they gradually occupied the area, pushing aside the local Hellenized population, especially in Thrace and Macedonia. By the end of this period, the Slavs had settled across the entire peninsula, except for the coastal regions where the existing inhabitants relied on the military strength of Byzantium to keep the new settlers away.

Byzantine Relations with the Slavs

The Byzantine emperors did not see the Slavs as enemies. The Slavs were peaceful tribes who became farmers and herders. They were not aggressive or politically driven. Over time, the Slavic settlers were even called upon to fight alongside the Byzantines against common enemies. The Byzantine ruling court viewed the gradual settlement of Slavic farmers and herdsmen in the Balkans favorably City Tour Istanbul.

Old Bulgarians’ Arrival (Around 650 A.D.)

Around 650 A.D., a powerful group of Old Bulgarians, led by their khan Asparukh, arrived at the banks of the Danube, dividing Romania from Bulgaria. Settling in North Dobrudja, they initiated raids on Byzantine territory. The Old Bulgarians had originated from the region between the Volga River and its tributary, the Kama. Unlike the Slavs, they were more politically oriented. Over the centuries, small migrant groups of Old Bulgarians had integrated into Slavic communities. The Old Bulgarians, skilled organizers, extended their political influence over the Slavs, providing them with a name, a sense of unity, and leadership. They adopted the Slavs’ language and embraced a greater sense of democratic policy.

The Arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans

Background

The Slavs, originating from the eastern regions of the Russian steppe, arrived in the Balkan Peninsula around the 5th century. Over the next two and a half centuries, they gradually occupied the area, pushing aside the local Hellenized population, especially in Thrace and Macedonia. By the end of this period, the Slavs had settled across the entire peninsula, except for the coastal regions where the existing inhabitants relied on the military strength of Byzantium to keep the new settlers away.

Byzantine Relations with the Slavs

The Byzantine emperors did not see the Slavs as enemies. The Slavs were peaceful tribes who became farmers and herders. They were not aggressive or politically driven. Over time, the Slavic settlers were even called upon to fight alongside the Byzantines against common enemies. The Byzantine ruling court viewed the gradual settlement of Slavic farmers and herdsmen in the Balkans favorably City Tour Istanbul.

Old Bulgarians’ Arrival (Around 650 A.D.)

Around 650 A.D., a powerful group of Old Bulgarians, led by their khan Asparukh, arrived at the banks of the Danube, dividing Romania from Bulgaria. Settling in North Dobrudja, they initiated raids on Byzantine territory. The Old Bulgarians had originated from the region between the Volga River and its tributary, the Kama. Unlike the Slavs, they were more politically oriented. Over the centuries, small migrant groups of Old Bulgarians had integrated into Slavic communities. The Old Bulgarians, skilled organizers, extended their political influence over the Slavs, providing them with a name, a sense of unity, and leadership. They adopted the Slavs’ language and embraced a greater sense of democratic policy.

Bulgaria's Ascension to Independence

A Flourishing Dawn

A Milestone Attained

With the formal recognition of Bulgaria’s independence, the nation achieved an esteemed legal status comparable to its European counterparts. This momentous event marked the commencement of a transformative era for the Bulgarian people.

Navigating Between Orient and Europe

Over three decades, Bulgarians navigated the critical juncture between the Orient and Europe. Eager to break free from the economic inertia of the Ottoman Empire, they swiftly sought to align themselves with the advanced nations of the continent.

The Rise of Bulgarian Industry

In the initial decade of the 20th century, Bulgaria’s fledgling industry witnessed an extraordinary surge, achieving a sevenfold increase in production. The state actively supported local industries through tax concessions and protective custom policies, fostering a burgeoning economic landscape.

Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry Advance

Bulgaria’s rapid economic development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries manifested in notable progress across agricultural, commercial, and industrial domains. By 1910, the nation had outpaced its neighbors in various economic indicators Private Turkey Tours, signaling its emergence as a regional economic powerhouse.

A Nationwide Revival

A cultural and intellectual renaissance swept across Bulgaria, leaving an indelible mark on science, literature, arts, and sports. This pervasive renewal, fueled by the nation’s promising economic and spiritual potential, positioned Bulgaria as a beacon of progress.

Empowered by Promise, Confronting National Challenges

By 1912, fortified by economic prosperity and a renewed national spirit, Bulgarians were prepared to address their national question through military means. This era of affluence and cultural resurgence laid the foundation for Bulgaria’s journey towards increased autonomy and global recognition.

The Unveiling of Unspeakable Horrors

Women’s Descent into Despair

Confessions of Dishonour A Brave Prelude

In the shadow of unthinkable horrors, women found courage in the act of confessional narration. They stood before the world, their voices trembling yet resolute, as they uttered the word “dishonour.” But what lay ahead was a descent into a darkness far more profound and agonizing.

Beyond Dishonour The Stain of Defilement

The narratives unfold, revealing that for women subjected to the brutality of Turkish oppression, dishonour was but a prelude. A woman’s suffering extended beyond mere shame; she faced a harrowing journey of being stained, defiled, and degraded. These stories depict a descent into a nightmarish reality, where self-loathing becomes an indelible mark, and the mirror reflects a stranger tainted by the hands of cruelty.

Echoes of Despair A Mother’s Agony for Her Daughters

The women, in their heart-wrenching confessions, weren’t shedding tears for themselves alone. A more profound grief engulfed them as they recounted the atrocities inflicted upon their daughters. Innocent and tender girls of twelve and fifteen, even children Balkan Tours, became victims of the same brutalization. A mother’s agony extended beyond personal suffering to encompass the unbearable pain of witnessing the desecration of her offspring.

Silent Screams Why Share the Unbearable?

The question arises—why these women chose to come forward, to expose their deepest wounds and utter the unspeakable? It transcends the burden of personal injustice and the foul, dreadful wrongs inflicted upon them. Perhaps, it’s the spirit wounded beyond endurance, impelled by an invisible force to scream out the injustices that Heaven must hear, if not see. A feeble hope, perhaps, that someday justice will prevail, and the avenging hand of retribution will reach those responsible.

The Unheard Stories Unspeakable Horrors Left Untold

The sheer horror embedded in these narratives defies repetition. The tales of unspeakable brutality, though left untold here, serve as a testament to the depth of human suffering. In a world where such atrocities persist, the voices that dare to break the silence become beacons, exposing the need for justice, compassion, and an unwavering commitment to end the cycle of cruelty.

The Resilient Spirit of Perustitza's Daughters

A Tale of Courage Amidst Chaos

In the harrowing tale of Perustitza’s siege, a remarkable narrative emerges, spotlighting the indomitable courage of its young girls who, facing imminent danger, defied societal norms to ensure their survival. The absence of a clear command structure among the villagers made their defense against the menacing Bashi-Bazouks all the more challenging, yet the community rallied together to confront the impending threat.

During the three days from Tuesday to Thursday, the villagers found themselves in a desperate struggle for survival. What is particularly striking is the absence of a discernible leader orchestrating the defense. Despite this leadership vacuum, the community displayed a collective resolve by distributing rations, posting sentries, and projecting a bold front against their aggressors.

Amidst this chaos, a curious and courageous decision was made regarding the village’s young girls. Recognizing the potential brutality they might face if captured by the Bashi-Bazouks, a collective decision was reached within the confines of the village church. All girls over the age of ten were to don boys’ clothing, transforming their appearance in the hopes of escaping the horrifying fate that awaited them if the worst came to pass.

The Armenian girl, a witness to this extraordinary transformation, recounts the efforts of her peers to assume a disguise. Nearly all the young girls, fueled by a determination to protect themselves, adopted the attire of their brothers. They skillfully cut off their long hair and endeavored to pass as boys, a desperate measure taken to evade the infamous brutality of the Bashi-Bazouks.

In the face of such adversity, these girls displayed immense bravery. The Armenian girl, although offered a boys’ suit, opted to endure the siege in her own attire. She notes that many of the disguised girls expressed a willingness to wield a weapon in defense of their community, underscoring the shared commitment to survival among the private tours bulgaria besieged villagers. Unfortunately, the scarcity of arms, even among the men, meant that the women were left without means to actively contribute to the defense.

Protective walls

The resilience of these girls, however, is not without its share of tragedy. As they ventured outside the protective walls, they were often mistaken for boys and fell victim to ruthless gunfire. Many lost their lives in this tragic case of mistaken identity. Despite the perils they faced, those who survived did so with their honor intact. The bright pairs of eyes that met the gaze of onlookers, undeterred by the missing tresses, spoke volumes of the unyielding spirit of Perustitza’s daughters.

In the face of chaos, uncertainty, and the ever-present threat of brutality, the young girls of Perustitza made a bold stand, challenging societal norms and demonstrating a resilience that defied the darkest expectations. Their story is a testament to the strength that can be found in unity and the unwavering human spirit in the face of adversity. Perustitza’s daughters, through their courage and sacrifice, etch a chapter of inspiration in the annals of resilience and defiance.

MacGahan Arrived Philippopolis

No journalist was ever more suited to such a mission as was MacGahan. He arrived in Philippopolis on fitly 23rd and immediately set about his task. On the other hand, the British government instructed Sir Henry Elliot, ambassador to Constantinople, to head an official inquiry, and Walter Baring, secretary of the Legation, was given the task.

At the suggestion of Dr. George Washburn, director of Robert College, the American plenipotentiary minister Maynard decided in his turn to inquire into the atrocities and entrusted the General-consul Eugene Schuyler, a well-known expert of his time on Russian foreign policy, with this third fact-finding expedition. The result was three parallel investigations led respectively by MacGahan, Schuyler and Baring.

Schuyler and Baring (the latter escorted by Guaracino, an official at the British consular service and self-avowed philo-turk) became the diplomatic satellites of the young journalist, and if Schuyler’s report published on August 28th, was accepted as a competent confirmation of MacGahan’s accounts City Tour Istanbul, the British diplomat refuted the conclusions he had previously been instructed to draw.

Bulgarian soil

MacGahan’s method of investigation is that of direct contact with the reality of the situation. In this relation is shown the intense humanism and combative attitude of the author in the face of all that is humiliating and a defiling of humanity. The principal figure in these reports is the martyred Bulgarian people and the Bulgarian soil, charred and bloodsoaked by the Turkish secular tyrant.

At Panagurishte, on the fortifications stained with blood, in the church at Batak, transformed into a horrible graveyard, before the heaped human skulls, amidst the crowds of widows and orphans, flocking beneath a moaning wafting heavenwards, amidst the witnesses of unseen human exploit of honor in Perustitsa, MacGahan followed in the wake of the insurgents and fulfilled the duty imposed on him by his conscience.

Kings and Queens

I was at first inclined to think it was the tall woman who must be the Queen, as she more nearly filled my ideas of what an Amazon should be, and I was surprised to learn that it was not she but the young girl who had been playing at “Kings and Queens” with such disastrous effect to herself. A slight, graceful form, only too plainly seen through her scanty, miserable clothing, large hazel eyes, an oval face, slightly browned by the sun, straight nose, and a veritable little rosebud of a mouth. She was thin and weak, and seemed scarcely able to stand, and the young girlish face wore a dejected, brokenhearted look that was sad to see.

A handkerchief was thrown over her head, and she wore a coarse brown linsey-woolsey jacket and a short petticoat of the same material that scarcely reached below her knees, exposing a white delicate foot. She had no shoes and stockings, and this costume she afterwards told me was not her own, but was given her after she had been stripped of her own clothing. She told us her story in a few words, from which it appeared she had taken some part in the insurrection indirectly, but that the report of her having been crowned Queen of the Bulgarians was a pure fiction Private Tours Istanbul.

Queen of the Bulgarians

The name “Queen of the Bulgarians” had been given her by the Turks in mockery, coupled with the vilest epithets and insults that a cowardly brutal soldiery could think of. She had been in prison two months, and during all this time had been given nothing to eat but bread and water. It was no wonder she looked weak and ill. As she was evidently too weak to stand talking there long, Mr. Schuyler told her he would try to have her set at liberty as soon as possible, and then we took our leave.

This visit of Mr. Schuyler’s and the interest he showed in her, resulted in her being released next day on bail, to be definitely set at liberty a few days later. I paid her a visit the day after in the khan or caravansary where she with her companion had found a temporary shelter, and obtained her story in detail.

Against the Persians and Hellas

Thracian kingdoms waged wars against the Persians and Hellas for centuries. But the powerful Macedonian state of Philip II managed to crash them. It was his son, Alexander the Great, who quickly appreciated the military virtues of the Thracians and let them join the multilingual Macedonian army. After his death in 323 B. C. the Thracian king Seuth III succeeded to restore partially the former state and so the walls of the new capital city of Seuthopolis rose close to the location of present-day Bulgarian town of Kazanluk.

During the 3rd century B.C. the Romans managed to conquer the ancient Thracian lands. Later, in 74 B. C., a slave of Thracian origin who ‘graduated’ a gladiator school and became famous under the name of Spartacus headed the most continuous and mass insurrection in ancient Rome. That was the period of the so called Romanization of the Thracian world which continued until the 4th century A. D. when “The Great Migration of Peoples” began and the Thracians had to keep Celts, Huns, Goths, Avars and other barbarian tribes from invading their lands. In these circumstances the Thracians – partially Hellenized and Romanized, and having their rich and complex cultural heritage – had to stand before one of the most significant historical events for them: the disintegration of the Roman Empire in 395. In less than a century its western half was put to a collapse under the ravaging barbarian tribes from the north but the eastern part survived under the name of Byzantium with Constantinople as a capital city. Those were the days when the founders of the First Bulgarian Kingdom stepped Private Tours Balkan onto their future land…

Slavs and Proto-Bulgarians

During the 4lh to 7lh centuries the Slavs were the most multitudinous peoples in Europe.

They belonged to the Indo-European linguistic family and historians classify them usually in three main divisions: West Slavs include Poles, Czechs, Slovaks and the Wends who lived in Germany east of the river Elbe; East Slavs include Great Russians,

Little Russians (Ukrainians) and White Russians (Belorussians);

South Slavs include Serbs

Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians and Bulgarians. Originally the Slavs inhabited the lands to the north of the Carpathian Mountains but by the beginning of the 6th century Slavic tribes undertook marches to the south and crossed the Danube to loot in the territory of the Byzantine Empire. At that time a tribe of Tatar nomads, the Avars, established a kingdom (407- 653) in central Asia. In 558 they crossed the Urals and settled in Dacia after which started threatening the western countries and, of course, Constantinople. The Avars forced some of the Slavic tribes to settle permanently in various regions of the Balkan Peninsula. So were differentiated the “Bulgarian group” – which stayed in Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia – and the Serbo-Croatian group which gradually withdrew to the western half of the peninsula.

Greek general

North Side.—The sculptures on this side represent a hunting scene. The central group is composed of three figures of horsemen; that in the middle is of a mounted Persian (probably the same that is depicted at the head of the sarcophagus) spearing a lion which has sprung at his horse’s breast, and which another hunter is clubbing; the other two horsemen, one on the right and the other on the left, are galloping to the first one’s assistance; the one on the left can be no other than Alexander, as is evinced by the crown on his head, while the one on the right appears to be the Greek general who figures in the battle-scene on the other side of the sarcophagus. To the right and left respectively of the central group are two secondary ones, each composed of a Greek and a Persian; that on the left is of a Persian archer taking aim at a lion, and of a running Greek with javelin poised and aimed at a deer; that on the right is of a Greek spearing a stag which a Persian is about to club.

Foot.—Here all the figures are of Persians. In the centre a Persian (probably the same as is represented on the head and one of the side slabs) dealing a blow with his axe at a panther; to the left a henchman is trying to hold a frightened horse, under which a hound is rushing at the panther; towards the right are two more hunters about to attack the panther; while, on the left, a third bearing a buckler gives it a spear-thrust.

Cornice ornament

The lid which completes this noble monument is in itself an admirable work of art. It is in the form of a sloping roof, and rests on a plinth forming- an architrave made of a thin layer of pearl under a row of rais’de-cceur. and with a cornice ornamented with a moulding of vine leaves; denticles under a thin lintel and a row of ovulae complete the ornamentation of the plinth. Along the eaves on each side is a row of twelve three-horned he-goats’ heads ; and above these and alternating with them are nine heads of women ornamented with palm leaves. At each of the four corners of the lid is a lion couchant with open mouth and fierce eyes. The two sides of the roof are imbricated; the top is ornamented with a row of six two-faced female heads arranged alternately with pairs of eagles, placed back to back; of the latter nothing now remains but the claws, the eagles having, in all probability, been broken off in recent times.

At the top of each of the two pediments are a pair of sphinxes facing each other, and above them an open palm leaf. The carving on each of the two frontages is of most exquisite workmanship.

Constantine aimed at making the new capital

Constantine aimed at making the new capital a counterpart of the old one, both in situation and in name. The first part of his wish was completed a century later, when the walls were extended by Theodosius to enclose all of the seven hills; but the title of New Koine, which he decreed the city should hear, was never generally used, and survives only in the official language of the Eastern Church. From the first the world insisted on calling it after its founder, Constantinopolis, the city of Constantine a name that, with slight alteration, has passed into all European languages. The Turkish name Istambol, corrupted into Stambul, is derived from the Greek e ‘ to town ’ or ‘ in town by which term the Greek-speaking inhabitants of Constantinople to this day refer to that part of the city. Throughout Turkey and Greece Constantinople is still alluded to as rirot?, i.e. ‘town and people speak of going to ‘ town ’ instead of saying ‘ to Constantinople In all official documents, however, and on their coins, the Turks use the word Constantinieh, the Arabic form for Constantinople, and not Istambol.

With the second foundation of the city by Constantine the Great, its true history may he said to commence. Constantine spared no effort to adorn his new capital, and forced the numerous countries subject to his sway to contribute their most valuable and their most costly relics, and their treasures of art and antiquity, to enhance the beauty and add to the splendour of Constantinople. The city was further embellished by his successors; among whom Theodosius II., the promulgator of the Theodosian Code, constructed the present land walls; while the church (now mosque) of St. Sophia, which is still one of the most famous buildings in the world, was erected by Justinian, whose Code, Pandects, Institutes, and Novellae have made his name immortal as a legislator.

Constantinople has suffered a long succession of attacks by foreign invaders. It was threatened by the Huns in the reign of Theodosius II. (450 A.D.) daily tours istanbul, and by the Huns and Slavs in that of Justinian (553 A.D.) In 626 A.D. Chosroes, king of Persia, a skilful and successful general, animated by hereditary hatred, and taking advantage of the breaking up of the Western Empire, led his troops in a series of successful marches to the very gates of Constantinople. The Emperor, Heraclius, succumbed at first, but eventually drove back the invader, retook his lost provinces, and exacted from Chosroes substantial guarantees for the maintenance of peace in the future.

Saracen conqueror Moawiyah

The next attack upon Constantinople was by the Saracen conqueror Moawiyah, who, in 668 A.D., sent his son Yezid at the head of a well-disciplined army to subdue the capital of the Eastern Empire. The invention of fire-tubes for squirting inflammable liquids supplied the garrison of Constantinople with a formidable weapon of defence. This feu Gregeois, as the early French writers style it, or Greek fire ’ (of which we now hear for the first time), created such havoc among their ships and men that the Saracen chieftains were at last, after a seven years’ siege, compelled to abandon their fruitless enterprise.

A second invasion of the Saracens under Mos- lemah was repelled by Leo the Isaurian in 718 A.D. In the latter part of the eighth century, the elegant and formidable Caliph of Bagdad, Haroun-el- Bashid, the friend and ally of Charlemagne, and the hero of the Arabian Nights planted his standard on the heights of Skutari, and would have laid siege to Constantinople, but drew back after obtaining a concession of tribute from the reigning Empress, Irene. In the middle of the next century, however, the Emperor Phocas Nice- phorus retrieved the disgrace by overrunning the dominions of the Caliph with a victorious army.

OLD PLOVDIV

As far back as six thousand years ago Neolithic man appreciated the propitious combination of a fertile land, a large river and inaccessible hills in the heart of the Thracian plain.

Contemporary with Troy, Mycanea and the cities of Crete, Plovdiv grew into a proper town in the 12th century B.C. Ancient Greek writers attribute its foundation to Eumolpi – son of Haemus and Rhodope. The town was raised behind a fortress wall upon a cluster of hills – Nebet Tepe, Taxim Tepe and Jambaz Tepe. It adopted the name of its founder – Eu- molpiade. A succession of names followed through the centuries – Philippopolis, Pulpudeva, Trimontium, Puldin, Felibe and Plovdiv.

Cultural strata laid down by the centuries have been integrated in the appearance of the present day town. Antique, mediaeval and Revival Period monuments stand next to each other in striking architectural ensembles on the historic Three Hills. Old Plovdiv is a unique living organism built of archaeological remains, museums and excellent galleries, Revival buildings holidays bulgaria, functioning churches rich in frescoes, carved wooden ornamentation and religious articles, cozy cafes and restaurants, school buildings, old-time and new houses with romantic courtyards and picturesque cobbled alleys. In 1956 Old Plovdiv was declared an architectural- historical reserve and in 1979 it was awarded a gold European medal for its achievements in the preservation of historical monuments.

Nebet Tepe

Decades of archaeological excavations on Nebet Tepe have uncovered numerous significant remains from antiquity and the earliest settlement on the hills. Archaeologists have identified fortification walls from various stages of antiquity. In the southern part of the saddle between Jambaz and Taxim hills there have also survived parts of the impressive fortress walls of the Acropolis and the South Gate. Eleven years of archaeological work unearthed, just inside the fortress wall, the remains of an imposing antique theatre, which was successfully conserved and restored. Another remarkable building was discovered at the western foot of Taxim Tepe hill in the Jumaya Square. A restored section of Philippopolis’ antique stadium is displayed here nowadays. Nearby, to the south of the Three Hills are the remains of the large Roman city square – the forum (agora). Sections of the fortress wall running along the tops of the hills have also survived to our day. There are remains of the early Thracian and Hellenistic ages as well as repaired structures from the Roman and Byzantine periods.

Iskra library club

One of the country’s most famous cultural institutes is the Iskra library club, founded in 1873 with library, theatre, cinema, and a museum with valuable exhibits. Here is also the famous Kazanluk Thracian Tomb, a unique monument of ancient Thracian art. It is believed that a prominent Thracian chieftain was buried in the tomb in the 4th-3rd century B.C. It consists of an antechamber, a stone corridor and a domed chamber. The frescoes on the walls, the corridor ceiling and the dome are kept at constant air temperature and humidity. The tomb is under the protection of UNESCO. There is a model nearby which is open to visitors.

Hotels: Kazanluk, 3 stars, 199 rooms, tel. 2-72-10; Roza, 2 stars, 1 Tolbukhin Rlvd.; Zomitsa, 2 stars, tel. 2-23-84.

Motel: Krunska Koriya, 2 stars, restaurant, 5 km from the town.

Camp sites: Krunska Koriya, 1 star, 5 km from the town. 12 km north of Kazanluk along the E-85 road at the very foot of the Balkan Range are the golden domes of the impressive church built 1897-1902 in memory of those who died in the Russo-Turkish War of Liberation 1877-78 private tour istanbul. The iconostasis of gilded woodwork was made in Moscow as were the bells while the icons were painted at the Panteleimon Monastery on Mount Athos, Greece. Part of the frescoes are from 1902 while the rest were painted in 1959.

Mount Shipka

A road leads up Mount Shipka to the granite monument to the handful of Russians and Bulgarians defending the Shipka Pass against the 35.000-strong army of Suleiman Pasha. The monument contains the remains of the defenders of the pass.

The neighbouring peak, Bouzloudja, has a huge monument to Communism and Socialism.

East along E-772 is the village of Muglizh (pop. 5,500; where the September uprising against fascism broke out in 1923. Sliven (pop. 98,000) is situated at the foot of the Eastern Balkan Range. The Blue Stones (a picturesque rock area) tower over the town. Sliven was first mentioned in the journal of the Arabian traveller, Idrissi, 1153, but archaeological studies in the area show there was a settlement in Roman times. Bulgaria’s first textile mills were opened here in 1834.

Tourist attractions:

Monument to Hadji Dimiter in the town centre.

Monument to the Soviet Army stands on Haman Bair hill in a park south of the town.

Bust of Dobri Zhelyazkov in the town centre.

Bust of Dobri Chintoulov in Hadji Dimiter’s Square.

Bust of Subi Dimitrov — Sliven’s favourite who when sur-rounded by police in 1941 killed himself so as not to fall into their hands.

Sofia gradually emerged

The new government solved many serious problems within a short period of time. Sofia gradually emerged as the main social, economic, administrative, cultural and transport centre of the country. It now accounts for nearly one fifth of Bulgaria’s industrial output.

The wounds from the air raids have been healed. New public buildings have been erected, new housing complexes have been built, streets, boulevards and stadia have been reconstructed. Sofia has become a very pleasant modern city.

Agricultural Academy

Sofia is the seat of the Academy of Sciences, the Agricultural Academy, the Clement of Ohrid University, Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Institute of Civil Engineering, Higher Medical School, Academy of Social Sciences and Management, Institute of Representational Arts, the Nikolai Pavlovich Institute of Dramatic Arts, the Ivan Vazov National Dramatic Theatre, the National Academy Theatre of Opera and Ballet, the Lyudmila Zhivkova People’s Theatre of Youth, the Suiza i Smyah Theatre, the People’s Army Theatre, the Stefan Makedonski State Musical Theatre and the Satirical Theatre and Theatre-199.

The oldest monuments discovered in Bulgaria have been preserved in the St. George Archaeological complex the Rotunda of St, George (4th century B.C.). Nearby are the remains of a Roman street and of a Roman public building, the octagon.

St, George’s church contains well preserved murals, dating from the 10th-14th centuries.

The octagon is faced with marble and high columns support the cupola of the nave. The octagon was later used as a church, and in the 4th-6th centuries it became one of the largest churches in the town. It was destroyed a few hundred years later.

Remains from ancient Serdica

The Eastern City Gate of ancient Serdica was discovered during construction of the subway in 1969. It was part of a fortress wall about 12 metres high fortified with 14-metre-tall loopholes. The fortress wall was restored and reinforced during the course of 12 centuries.

The Western Gate is behind the Lenin monument, the Northern Gate is under the Central Supermarket in Georgi Dimitrov Boulevard and the Southern Gate lies north of Alabin Street and east of Vitosha Boulevard.

The Triangular Tower is in the basement of the Sofia Shop where Boulevard Georgi Dimitrov crosses Exarch Yosif Street. It was one of the towers protecting the Northern Gate daily sofia tour.

I he Round Tower lies north of the Sofia Public Baths where Iskur Street crosses Serdica Street. It stood in a corner in the north-east part of the fortress wall.

The Church of St, Sophia was built in Byzantine times (fifth .or sixth century) and is a remarkable monument. In the

13thjJ4th centuries it was a metropolitan church and held an ecclesfastical school. In the 16th century the Ottoman rulers converted it into a mosque. It now stands in Alexander Nevsky Square.

Buviik Djamia (The Big Mosque), 15th century, is situated at the comer of Legue St. and Stamboluski Blvd.