SYMMETRICAL SWIRLS flowers

SYMMETRICAL SWIRLS Twirl a sunflower around in your fingers and the pattern at the center of the flower head looks the same from every side. This is because the sunflower head is radially symmetrical—the florets form two sets of spirals starting at the same point somewhere in the center of the flower, before turning in opposite directions, one clockwise and the other counterclockwise.

Radial symmetry appears throughout the plant world, from daisies to pine cones. The spirals follow a pattern known as the Fibonacci sequence, named after the Italian mathematician who discovered it. In this sequence, each number is the sum of the previous two. The pattern starts 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on. The reason why Fibonacci numbers are common in nature is because this is the best way to pack the most flowers, leaves, or seeds into a tight space. A sunflower head is made up of many tiny florets—the dark rods in the picture are opened florets, while those in the center are unopened ones. Each new floret grows at an angle to the previous one, leaving no gaps and maximizing its exposure to pollinators.

Simple leaves

A leaf typically consists of a flat surface called a blade, which carries a network of veins. These veins support the leaves and transport the water and minerals to them from the rest of the plant. A simple leaf has a single, undivided blade.

Simple leaves come in many shapes and sizes, and those best suited to their habitat are the most likely to thrive. In wet rain forest conditions plants have big leaves, while plants in drier locations usually have small leaves. Some plants, such as English ivy and ginkgo, change their leaf shape

as they grow and get more access to sunlight. The Swiss-cheese plant and elephant’s ear grow in rain forests so have waxy, pointy leaves to help rainwater run off. Another rain forest plant, the Amazonian water lily, has giant leaves that spread across lakes to capture as much sunlight as possible. Although the reasons remain unclear, scientists believe the jagged leaf edges of sugar maple and silver birch may help keep them slightly warmer than smooth edges would, allowing the plants to grow faster in cool spring weather

A compound leaf is one that is divided into two or more parts called leaflets. These leaflets grow either along the stalk like a feather or from a single point like a fan. Compound leaves come in a wide range of shapes and sizes.

Seed shapes

A seed is a small package that protects a young plant and contains all the nutrients the plant will need to germinate. Although all seeds do the same job, they come in a wide range of shapes and sizes, to help each one survive in its particular environment and spread without being eaten by hungry animals. Seed shapes

The giant coco de mer seed is able to hold a lot of nutrients so that the new plant has enough energy to grow out of its mother’s shadow. The poppy has another survival strategy—rather than one big seed, it produces tens of thousands of tiny seeds to maximize its chances. The spiky coats of the horse chestnut seed and the kiaat seed pod deter hungry animals, while other seeds, such as those of the avocado and peach, are too hard for most plant eaters to munch. Sometimes, what we think of as seeds are, in fact, fruits with seeds inside, including those of the sunflower, coriander, and pot marigold

FOREWORD

Plants are essential for life. They make our planet’s atmosphere breathable, their decaying bodies create the soil under our feet, and they transform light energy into consumable nutrients that keep us alive. They also inspire artists; think of Georgia O’Keeffe’s Poppies, Claude Monet’s Water Lilies, and Vincent van Gogh’s Sunflowers. Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds combines the art and science of plants, revealing complex botanical details in beautiful photographs and simple graphics. While previewing this book, I wondered where it was when I was a child interested in learning more about plants.

It reminded me why I began my career in horticulture. At its most basic level, horticulture is the science and art of growing plants. This amalgamation of disciplines is what first attracted me to the profession and has held my interest for more than 40 years. This volume brought me back to Hort Studies 101, with each chapter examining different plants, their parts, and how they interact with the world around them. Thankfully, the photographs used reveal details—ranging from tangled roots to distinctive seed and flower shapes—that surpass the old transparency sheets used by my professors. Similar to Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds,

Smithsonian Gardens combines art and science in its many diverse garden and landscape exhibits. While their beauty is often what initially attracts visitors, the science they embody showcases our living collections and provide depths of engagement with our audiences. Our gardens are delightful examples of performative art. They change every season, indeed every day, of their existence. Smithsonian Gardens’ staff horticulturists and gardeners are extraordinarily knowledgeable when it comes to plant science, yet so much of their work evolves into genuine artistry thanks to their natural skill in combining living collections. Perhaps the fascinating information and engaging photographs in Trees, Leaves, Flowers & Seeds will launch an inquisitive child’s journey into the mesmerizing world of plants.

Flowers in Literature

HAMLET by William Shakespeare A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM by William Shakespeare JANE EYRE by Charlotte Brontë NORTHANGER ABBEY by Jane Austen LITTLE WOMEN by Louisa May Alcott THE SCARLET LETTER by Nathaniel Hawthorne THE SCARLET PIMPEREL by Baroness Emmuska Orczy TESS OF THE D’URBERVILLES by Thomas Hardy THE TIME MACHINE by H G Wells DRACULA by Bram Stoker HAMLET OPHELIA: There's rosemary, that's for remembrance; pray, love, remember: and there is pansies. that's for thoughts.

... There's fennel for you, and columbines: there's rue for you; and here's some for me: we may call it herb-grace o' Sundays: O you must wear your rue with a difference. There's a daisy: I would give you some violets, but they withered all when my father died: they say he made a good end,—

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM OBERON: I pray thee, give it me. I know a bank where the wild thyme blows, Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows, Quite over-canopied with luscious woodbine, With sweet musk-roses and with eglantine: There sleeps Titania sometime of the night, Lull'd in these flowers with dances and delight; And there the snake throws her enamell'd skin, Weed wide enough to wrap a fairy in: And with the juice of this I'll streak her eyes, And make her full of hateful fantasies. Take thou some of it, and seek through this grove: A sweet Athenian lady is in love With a disdainful youth: anoint his eyes; But do it when the next thing he espies May be the lady: thou shalt know the man By the Athenian garments he hath on. Effect it with some care, that he may prove More fond on her than she upon her love: And look thou meet me ere the first cock crow

THE POSIE FLOWERS

O luve will venture in, where it daur na weel be seen, O luve will venture in, where wisdom ance has been; But I will down yon river rove, amang the wood sae green, And a' to pu' a posie to my ain dear May. The primrose I will pu', the firstling o' the year, And I will pu' the pink, the emblem o' my dear, For she's the pink o' womankind, and blooms without a peer; And a' to be a posie to my ain dear May. I'll pu' the budding rose, when Phœbus peeps in view, For it's like a baumy kiss o' her sweet bonnie mou; The hyacinth's for constancy w' its unchanging blue, And a' to be a posie to my ain dear May. The lily it is pure, and the lily it is fair.

And in her lovely bosom I'll place the lily there; The daisy's for simplicity and unaffected air, And a' to be a posie to my ain dear May. The hawthorn I will pu', wi' its locks o' siller grey, Where, like an aged man, it stands at break o' day, But the songster's nest within the bush I winna tak away; And a' to be a posie to my ain dear May. The woodbine I will pu' when the e'ening star is near, And the diamonddrops o' dew shall be her e'en sae clear: The violet's for modesty which weel she fa's to wear, And a' to be a posie to my ain dear May. I'll tie the posie round w' the silken band o' luve, And I'll place it in her breast, and I'll swear by a' above, That to my latest draught o' life the band shall ne'er remuve. And this will be a posie to my ain dear May.

THE SENSITIVE PLANT

A Sensitive Plant in a garden grew, And the young winds fed it with silver dew, And it opened its fan-like leaves to the light, And closed them beneath the kisses of Night. But none ever trembled and panted with bliss In the garden, the field, or the wilderness, Like doe in the noontide with love's sweet want, As the companionless Sensitive Plant. The snowdrop, and then the violet, Arose from the ground with warm rain wet, And their breath was mixed with fresh odour, sent, From the turf, like the voice and the instrument. Then the pied wind-flowers and the tulip tall, And narcissi, the fairest among them all, Who gaze on their eyes in the stream's recess, Till they die of their own dear loveliness.

And the naiad-like lily of the vale. Whom youth makes so fair and passion so pale, That the light of its tremulous bells is seen Through their pavilions of tender green; And the hyacinth purple, and white, and blue, Which flung from its bells a sweet peal anew Of music so delicate, soft and intense, It was felt like an odour within the sense! And the rose like a nymph to the bath addrest, Which unveiled the depth of her glowing breast, Till, fold after fold, to the fainting air The soul of her beauty and love lay bare; And the wand-like lily, which lifted up, As a Mænad, its moonlight-coloured cup, Till the fiery star, which is its eye, Gazed through the clear dew on the tender sky; And the jessamine faint, and the sweet tuberose, The sweetest flower for scent that blows; And all rare blossoms from every clime Grew in that garden in perfect prime. The Sensitive Plant, which could give small fruit Of the love which it felt from the leaf to the root, Received more than all [flowers], it loved more than ever, Where none wanted but it, could belong to the giver— For the Sensitive Plant has no bright flower; Radiance and odour are not its dower; It loves, even like Love its deep heart is full, It desires what it has not, the beautiful! Each and all like ministering angels were For the Sensitive Plant sweet joy to bear. Whilst the lagging hours of the day went by Like windless clouds o'er a tender sky. And when evening descended from heaven above, And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love, And delight, though less bright, was far more deep, And the day's veil fell from the world of sleep, The Sensitive Plant was the earliest Up-gathered into the bosom of rest; A sweet child weary of its delight, The feeblest, and yet the favourite, Cradled within the embrace of night.

The following excerpts of poems

Example of Use in Poems The following excerpts of poems were compiled by Kate Greenaway as an example of the language of flowers in use. DAFFODILS by William Wordsworth THE ROSE by Edmund Waller THE SENSITIVE PLANT by Percy Bysshe Shelley THE POSIE by Robert Burns MY NANNIE’S AWA by Robert Burns THEIR GROVES by Robert Burns TO A MOUNTAIN DAISY by Robert Burns LAMENT OF MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS by Robert Burns RED AND WHITE ROSES by Thomas Carew SONNET XXVI by Edmund Spenser TO PRIMROSES FILLED WITH MORNING DEW by Robert Herrick A RED, RED ROSE by Robert Burns AN EPITAPH UPON A CHILD by Robert Herrick MUSIC, WHEN SOFT VOICES DIE by Percy Bysshe Shelley TO JANE: AN INVITATION by Percy Bysshe Shelley TO DAFFODILS by Robert Herrick CONSTANCY by Samuel Fletcher ELEGY ON CAPTAIN MATTHEW HENDERSON by Robert Burns TO THE SMALL CELANDINE by William Wordsworth TO BLOSSOMS by Robert Herrick THE LILY AND THE ROSE by William Cowper THE WALL-FLOWER by Robert Herrick THE PRIMROSE by Thomas Carew ADONIS SLEEPING by John Keats TO EMILIA VIVIANI by Percy Bysshe Shelley THE QUESTION by Percy Bysshe Shelley FADE, FLOW’RS! FADE by Edmund Waller ARRANGEMENT OF A BOUQUET by Nicholas Drayton THE CHERRY by Richard Allison THE GARLAND by Matthew Prior TO THE VIRGINS, TO MAKE MUCH OF TIME by Robert Herrick SONG OF MAY MORNING by John Milton FRAGMENT, IN WITHERSPOON'S COLLECTION OF SCOTCH SONGS adapted by Robert Burns THE DAISY by Geoffrey Chaucer DAFFODILS

I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden Daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle in the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. The waves beside them danced; but they Outdid the sparkling waves in glee; A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company; I gazed and gazed, but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought! For oft when on my couch I lie, In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the Daffodils.

ESSENTIAL OILS BY COMMON USE

Allergies – Peppermint, lemon, lavender. Anxiety, Depression and Stress – Patchouli, bergamot, juniper, lemon, frankincense, eucalyptus, lavender, rose. Clarity/Meditation – Peppermint, frankincense. Cleansing – Peppermint, clary sage, lemon. Energy – Orange, pink grapefruit, lemon, bergamot, juniper. Focus – Vetiver, lavender, sandalwood, rosemary. Germs/Cleaning – Lavender, lemon, grapefruit, eucalyptus. Sleep – Lavender, vetiver, chamomile. Aconite – Aconite is known by many names, including monkshood, wolf's bane, leopard's bane, mouse bane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket. All parts of the plants are poisonous, and it has been used since ancient times to poison arrow heads and other weapons. It has been used in medicines, including Chinese herbal remedies by boiling the plant to reduce its potency but has often ended poisoning and even killing the patient rather than healing them.

Aloe Vera – Used to treat burns, or as a moisturizing agent. It is also sometimes used as a carrier due to its natural gel like consistency. Angelica – Has been used historically to treat hair loss, and to soften and soothe the skin. In aromatherapy it has been used to target stress, anxiety and exhaustion, and has also been widely used in perfumes and cosmetics. Angelica root also has a distinct flavour that is used in the production of liquors Benedictine and Chartreuse. Anise – An extremely dangerous and toxic essential oil that can cause paralysis, it is now under strict control in some countries and is not recommended for use due to the associated risks, but has been used for menopause, nervous palpitations, anxiety, and relieving breathing in extremely diluted doses. Anise or aniseed has been used widely in cooking, and in flavouring liquors. Arnica – Used in massage oils to stimulate the body and sooth strained muscles and joints. It was also traditionally used to treat anything from arthritis and hematomas to insect bites and the common cold. Bay – Bay essential oil is similar to clove or laurel. It is used as an antiseptic, and for the respiratory system. It is used widely in hair care products as it is said to combat hair loss, and Victorian men used bay rum – that is, bay leaves distilled in rum, as a hair wash to be rubbed into the scalp. As it is associated as a masculine scent it is also used in shaving creams and soaps, where it is also well suited due to it’s antiseptic qualities. Bergamot – Used as an antiseptic, and a perfume due to its smell, there are warnings for using this topically, as it can cause permanent and irregular over-pigmentation of the skin. Despite this, it is still often used in skin tan solutions and cosmetics. It is also often used in cooking, the peels candied and used in patisserie, and the essential oil used to flavour Earl Grey tea. Burdock – Burdock has beed used traditionally in medicines as a blood cleansing tonic, and has been used in skin creams for irritable skin. Calendula – Used for healing wounds, or dry and irritated skin conditions. With it’s bright coloured petals and strong scent, calendula has also been a common inclusion as a dried flower in pot pourri. Camphor – Although it has fallen out of use today, potentially due to its toxicity and ability to trigger allergies and asthmatic conditions, camphor was once used as an insecticide and as mothballs in the home. Caraway – Caraway has been used for millennia, in cooking as well as in culture. Fossilized seeds have bee found in Neolithic dwellings dating back to 8,000 years ago. The Ancient Egyptians used it in religious rituals and the Romans chewed the seeds after a meal to freshen their breath. Caraway has been used to treat digestion and flatulence, colic and colitis as well as being considered a mild antiseptic. Compresses and poultices were made with caraway to rub on children’s stomachs to ease colic and stomach upsets. It is also widely used in perfumes, soaps and as a moth repellant in drawers. Cardamom – Another spice which has a long history, Cardamom was also used by Ancient Egyptians in religious rites as well as in cooking and perfumes. Ovid and other poets wrote songs quoting cardamom’s aroma, and it was also used to treat epilepsy, paralysis, rheumatic stiffness and intestinal disorders. It was added to wine, and has been used in food from cakes and pastries to sausages and fish.

Flowers in Aromatherapy and Homeopathy

Beyond the uses of flowers in floriography, flowers have also been used for their scents and essences in aromatherapy and homeopathy. Although the 1884 guide by Kate Greenaway is useful for interpreting things written in the Victorian age, and indeed can still be used in many forms today it is important to remember that to modern readers and recipients flowers may have more recent and prominent associations. Lavender, for example, was a sign of distrust according to Kate Greenaway’s list of interpretation. The deceptive connotation came fromthe usage of lavender’s sweet scent to hide bad odours. However, it’s use in aromatherapy as a sleep-aid and calming influence, as well as it’s common use as a dried flower to scent drawers has created a more dominant meaning and would likely be the initial assumption of someone receiving a sprig today.

I have compiled a list of common associations for plants in aromatherapy, essential oils and homeopathy. This is not, however, an exhaustive list, nor should it be treated as a guide for use in consumable products. Aromatherapy differs from perfumery as it is targeted towards wellness, and promoting either health or mood benefits; whereas perfumery is the art of creating a scent pleasing to the nose without the agenda of effects for the body or mind. Homeopathy is a form of natural therapy targeted at easing symptoms of illness. It became widely used in the 1800s after a book written by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann increased access, and remained a popular practice until the 1950s where it fell out of use with the rise in accessibility and affordability of modern medicine. A common theme in both aromatherapy and homeopathy is blending the active ingredients together and infusing them in a carrier. The carrier is often an oil that provides a neutral vessel for the active ingredients to be diluted, consumed, or applied externally such as in a balm, body butter or massage oil. Different preparation methods are used for different types of oil dispersion, including: Diffusion – a method that disperses small molecules or droplets of the oil into the air for inhalation. Traditional candle diffusers achieve this by heating the oil from below with a small candle, while many modern aromatherapy enthusiasts would use an electric diffuser. In the Bath – mixing oils with salts or oil to be mixed into a bath. The oils are then both in contact with the skin as well as inhaled in the rising steam. Massage – diluted with oils that are suitable for contact with the skin, these essential oils are then worked into the body. A common oil with neutral scent is coconut oil. Hot Compress – Oils mixed with hot water and then used to soak a cloth which is then applied to the body

A MODERN MARVEL: THE RAINBOW ROSE

We can thank Peter van de Werken for inventing the Rainbow Rose, withhis genius blending of botany and science. The rainbow rose, of course, does not grow its mutli-coloured plumage naturally. It is in fact a white rose, which with careful manipulation draws up the colours through water in its stem. To get a result of good enough quality to sell requires special skill and knowledge of exactly where and how to divide specific veins of the plant – but even a novice can have some fun and create a colour blended hybrid.

If trying this at home, try to find a variety of white rose – Vandela are among the best – with long stems. Fill several glasses with water, each with a different colourant as desired. Cut the stem vertically to divide the ends into each glass (alternatively, you can tie bags of coloured water around each stem-foot and nestle in a large vase). You may wish to tie some supporting twine or ribbon around the stem above the split to prevent further cracking. With the stems submerged, they should draw the colour up into the petals over twelve to twenty-four hours. Similar results can be achieved with other thick white petaled flowers such as tulips.

Linseed Meal Poultices

Linseed meal Boiling water Put sufficient meal to make the poultice the size required into a hot bowl, and pour on boiling water enough to make a soft paste; beat quickly for three minutes, or till it looks oily. Have ready a flannel or cotton bag, the size required; pour in the paste, sew up the mouth of the bag quickly. Apply the poultice to the affected part as hot as can be borne. If ordered with mustard, mix a tablespoonful of dry mustard with the meal. Good for inflammation.

Mustard Poultices Dry mustard Cold water Mix enough cold water with the mustard to make it into a thick paste; when quite smooth, spread it upon a piece of thin old linen, or cot-ton; sew it round so as to form a bag. Be careful not to make the poultice larger than required; hold it to the fire for a few minutes, so as not to chill your patient; time, from fifteen to thirty minutes; have ready a piece of clean soft cotton, or a piece of clean wadding, and when you take off the mustard poultice, put on the wadding or the cotton.

The following recipes

RECIPIES FROM HISTORY The following recipes have been extracted and edited from Mrs. Hale’s Receipts for the Million by Mrs. Sarah Josepha Hale published in 1857. Lemon Syrup for a Cough To a pint and a half of water, add two large poppy-heads and two large lemons. Boil them till they are soft, press the lemons into the water, strain the liquor, and add half a drachm of saffron, and half a pound of brown sugar-candy, pounded. Boil all together till the sugar-candy is dissolved; stir the whole till you perceive it will jelly; strain it a second time and take the seeds from the poppies. Turnip Syrup for a Cold or Affection of the Lungs Roast twelve or more fine turnips in an apple roaster, press the juice from them and add sugar-candy to your taste.

Take a teacupful at night and in the morning. Rose Gargle Red rosebuds, dried, half an ounce. Boiling water, two pints. Diluted vitriolic acid, three drachms. Mix these together, macerate for half an hour, and draw off the liquor. Sweeten with an ounce of honey. Detergent Gargle Borax powder, two drachms. Rosewater, six ounces. Honey of roses, one ounce. Mix together. To be used in the thrush. Common Gargle Honey-water, seven ounces. Honey of roses, six drachms. Vinegar, half an ounce. Tincture of myrrh, two drachms. Mix these together. Elderflower Ointment Gather the buds or earliest flowers of the elder-bush. Simmer these in fresh butter, or sweet lard. It makes a healing and cooling ointment for the skin, in cutaneous diseases. Elderflower Poultice A poultice of elderflower tea and biscuit, is good as a preventive to mortification. White-bean Poultice Nothing is so good to take down swellings, as a soft poultice of stewed white beans. Put on in a thin muslin bag and renewed every hour or two.

SECRETS OF NATURE: WITCHES AND HERBS

For a fascinating study in superstition and the relationship people had with plants, and even the planets, find the following passages extracted and edited from Witchcraft Detected and Prevented, or The School of Black Art Newly Opened by P. Buchan, 1823. EXTRACTED FROM ALBERTUS MAGNUS’ INVESTIGATION OF THE VIRTUES OF CERTAIN HERBS The Heliotropium, or Sunflower, says our naturalist, is endued with wonderful virtues; for if gathered when the sun is in the fifth sign of the zodiac, and wrapped in a laurel leaf; thereto being added a wolf’s tooth; the person who carries it about him, shall find that nobody can have the power of using any other than mild language to him. Moreover, if anything has been taken from him by stealth let him lay it under his head by night, and he shall see the thief and all the circumstances of the theft.

The second herb he takes notice of is the Nettle. By holding this herb, together with Milfoil in your hand, you are free from fear of apparitions. Mix it with the juice of Sengreen, and smear your hands therewith, putting apart into any water where there are fish, it will not fail to attract them. Withdraw it, and they will disperse immediately. Take the herb Shepherd’s Rod, mix it with the juice of Mandrake, and it will impregnate the female of any animal it is given to, and produce one of its species. The jaw-tooth of an animal thus produced, being steeped in any liquor, will provoke those who taste it to a quarrelsome disposition, which to appease, there needs no more than making them swallow the juice of the herb Valerian. Not less extraordinary is the property of the herb Celandine which if suspended, it is said, over the head of a sick person, will set him a singing aloud, if he be likely to live; if to die, it will make him weep. The herb Periwinkle, he tells us, being pulverized with earth-worms and Sengreen, creates affection between man and wife, by putting a portion of it in their food. A small quantity of the above preparation, with some sulphur, being thrown into a fishpond will destroy the fish; and being applied to the mouth of the buffalo, will cause an explosion tremendous to hear. The herb Cat-mint, with a stone found in the Puet’s nest, being held to the nose of an animal, makes him drop down, to all appearance dead; but he wall soon recover. Being put into a receptacle for bees, it prevents their going away; and though they were put into water and taken out without any signs of life, in the space of an hour it will restore them to their former vigour. The herb Dog’-tongue, with the heart of a young frog, and its matrix, will, a short time, collect a multitude of dogs to wherever it is laid. Put the same herb under your great toe, and it will prevent a dogs barking. Tie it to a dog’s neck, in such a manner that he cannot get at it with his teeth, and he will not cease wheeling round until he fall as if dead. The herb Henbane, mixed with wild Saffron, and given to a mad dog, kills him instantaneously. The juice of the above herbs being put into a silver cup, will break it into small particles; and whosoever would bring a number of hares together, needs but to carry it with the blood of a leveret in a hare’s skin. The Lily: gather this herb while the sun is in Leo, mix it with the juice of the laurel, which done, bury it for some time under dung, and worms shall be bred from it, which worms being reduced to a powder, and applied to one's neck, will not let the bearer sleep; if put into a cow's milk, and covered with the hide of a cow of one colour, it will dry the udders of them all. What he next notices is the Mistletoe, which, with another herb called the Martagon, has the virtue of opening any lock whatsover. Besides which, if put in the mouth of a person, and that he think of a certain thing, it will dwell upon his memory, if it be to happen; if not, it will escape his remembrance. Let it be suspended from a tree with the wing of a swallow, and birds without number will flock thither. The herb Century is said to have wonderful virtues: for if with the blood of a female Puet is put into a lamp, all the bystanders will imagine themselves enchanted in such a manner that it will appear their position is inverted, supposing their heads to be where their feet are: again, if thrown into the fire, the stars shall seem a tilting at one another: moreover, when applied to the nose of anyone, it will operate so as to make him run himself out of breath for fear. Sage being rooted under dung, and put under a glass, will produce a worm, or a bird having a tail like a blackbird’s: the blood of which, if it touch a person's breast, renders the person so touched senseless for a fortnight. Another property of it is, that if the powder it may be reduced to, be put into a lamp, the room in which it burns will seem full of serpents. Vervain has, amongst others, a salutary property: gather it when the sun is in Aries, or

the month of March, and with a grain of Piony of one year’s growth, Is a specific to those who are afflicted with the epilepsy or fits. If put into a rich mould it will produce worms in eight weeks, which are immediate death to whoever touches them. Another property of it is to attract pigeons, which it does surprisingly when put into a dove-cot. The next herb Albertus notices, is Balm-gentle, of which Macer speaks, this herb being gathered green and moistened with the juice of a Cypress of a year’s growth, and infused into potage will make it appear full of worms. Let it be fastened to an ox’s neck, and he will follow you wherever you go. A property inherent in the Rose is that, if with a grain of mustard seed, and the foot of a weasel, it be tied to a tree, it will bear no fruit so long as it continues there—to make amends for this malignant effect, it will draw fish without number to the net it is fastened to. Be it observed, that a good or bad effect is derived from the herbs, according to the predominance of a good or bad planet. To the foregoing are subjoined the virtues of seven herbs, upon the authority of the Emperor Alexander. The first herb, known by the name of the Daffodil, is Saturn’s; and is of great efficacy in removing pains in the loins and legs; its root parboiled, may likewise be administered with success, to persons afflicted with the gravel. If kept in a house where children are breeding teeth, it greatly facilitates the cutting, and assuages the pain. It banishes fear from the person who carries it about him and protects him from injury. The second herb derives peculiar virtues from the Sun, is of a prolific quality, and strengthens the sight, if but carried in the pocket; if provided before pains in the eyes are felt, it proves a certain preventative. The third herb influenced by the Moon and affords great relief to those who are troubled with acrid humours. It is remarkable that this herb waxes and wanes with the Moon. To those who are subject to bloodshot-eyes, it is of sovereign use; the root of it being bruised, and applied to the afflicted part, mitigates the painful sensation in a few minutes: nor is it less efficacious in promoting digestion, the juice of it having that very beneficent quality. The fourth herb, Dog’s-rib, is valuable for a property it possess of removing the headache, and pains in the privities. Those who are afflicted with the piles and dysentery, receive great benefit from it. The fifth herb, under the influence of Mercury, is called Cinquefoil; the root of which being pounded, and applied as a plaster, heals wounds, and removes callosities. To it likewise is ascribed the virtue of curing scrophulous disorders. It is said to be very serviceable to all who would make an impression on the person of whom they solicit a favour, as it confers an irresistible flow of eloquence. The sixth herb, called the Herb of Jove, is deservedly accounted among the formest for its sanative qualities ; having that desirable one of giving ease in the most violent fits of the gout. The juice of it, added to mead, is found to be a restorative, and has been recommended to those who complain of disorders in the liver. These properties it is supposed to receive from the planet to which it owes its name also; Jupiter having charge of the liver. The seventh herb, commonly called Venus’-wort, is not inferior to any of the foregoing, its properties being equally serviceable, particularly in removing impost-humes, scropholous excresences, and inflammations of the anus. Its juice being mingled with honey, sweetens the breath, and people of an amorous disposition have been known to receive singular benefit from it. Nor is it among the smallest of its advantages, that being planted in vineyards or cornfields, it produces abundant crops.

PLAGUE DOCTORS

The terrifying beak-like masks that have become synonymous with the black plague of the 17th century were for more than just looks. In the long, curved beak of the mask they placed herbs or cloth soaked in essential oils that were thought to purify the poisoned air that spread the plague. Of course, at this time they were unaware that the plague was in fact spread by the fleas on rats – not a miasma of poisoned air. The exact combination of what was placed in the beaks varies, with some sources stating they used theriac – a combination of 55 different components including viper flesh powder, myrrh, cinnamon and honey – while others may have made do with garlic. The popular myth of the “Four Thieves of Marseilles” – which may or may not have been an exaggerated marketing ploy by an enterprising chemist – alleges that during a terrible outbreak plague of the plague in 1772 fourfearless young men used a solution marketed at Marseilles Vinegar (or more recently as the Four Thieves essential oils blend) to ransack the riches of the sick and dying, and fend off the effects of the plague.

The original recipe for Marseilles Vinegar is a mixture of rosemary, sage flowers, lavender, rue, camphor, garlic, cloves and white vinegar. Current blends use more readily available mixtures of lemon, clove, cinnamon, eucalyptus and rosemary – although they are used more as cleaners than at attempting disease control in the modern age. PLAGUE REMEDIES Extracted and edited from the 1669 translation of Natural Magick by John Baptista Porta, originally published in 1558 as Magia Naturalis by Giambattista della Porta. Antidotes and preservatives against the Plague I have spoken of poisons, now I will of the plague, being of the same nature, and cured almost by the same Medicines. I will set down only them, which in our time have been experimented by the Neapolitanes, Sicilians, and Venetians (whilst the plague was spread amongst them) to resist the contagion of that epidemical plague, and preserve their bodies from infection. A confection of Gillyflowers against the plague, of wonderful operation

Gather feme clove-gillyflowers in the month of May, of a red and lively colour because they are of the greater virtue; pull them out of their husks, and dip off the green end, then beat them in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle, until they become so fine as they may hardly be felt. In the meanwhile, take three pound of agar for one of the flowers; melt it in a brass skillet, and boil it with a little orange flower-water, that may quickly consumed. When it is boiled sufficiently, put in some whites of eggs beaten, enough to froth and clarify it, still stirring it, and skimming off the froth with a spoon, until all the dregs be taken out. Then put in the due weight of flowers, and stir it with a wooden slice, till it turn red: when it is almost boiled, add there unto two drachms of cloves beaten with a little musk, the mixture of which will both add and excite a sweet scent and pleasantness in the flowers. Then put it into earthen pots, and fet it up: if you add a little juice of Iemon, it will make it of a more lively blood-colour. We may also make lozenges and round cakes of it, by pouring it on a cold marble. If any would do it after the best manner, they must extract the colour of the flowers, and boil their sugar in that infusion, for so it will smell sweeter. Some never bruise the flowers, but cut them very small with scissors, and candy them with sugar; but they are not very pleasant to eat. This confection is most grateful to the taste, and by reason of the scent of the clove, very pleasant. The virtues of it are these, as I have found by experience: if is good for all diseases of the heart, as fainting, and trembling thereof; for the megram and poison, and the bitings of venomous creatures , and especially against the infection of the plague. There may be made a vinegar, or infusion of it, which being rubbed about the nostrils is good against contagious air, and night-dews and the effects of melancholy. Against the Plague Gather Ivy-berries I May, and wild poppies before the sun rise, lest they open; In April gather goats rue: dry them in the shade, and make them into a powder. One drachm of it being drank in wine, is excellent for infectious diseases. The Bezoar stone, brought from the west Indies, being hung about the neck nigh to the heart; or four grains of it in powder being taken in wine, is good against the plague, and the infection of pestilential fevers, as I can testify: and taketh away foundings, and exilarateth the heart. The water and oil, extracted from the seeds of Citron, is a strong antidote against the Plague.

TULIP MANIA

Tulips have a long and interesting history. Originally found growing wild in Himalayan mountain ranges, they were originally the flowers of the Turks. Even the name ‘tulip’ is related to the word for ‘turban’ due to the similarity in shape. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent was the first to cultivate the bulb in Istanbul, and Sultan Ahmed III was known as ‘The Tulip King’ for his obsession with the flower. The tulip travelled to Europe originally as diplomatic gifts, and the exotic flowers were received with both awe and obsession. The Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq received several bulbs, some of which he passed on to his friend – and the botanist who established the botanical garden of Leiden – Carolus Clusius. What happened thereafter was almost unbelievable, as the Netherlands were overcome with what has come to be known as ‘Tulip Mania’.

Bulbs and flowers were traded at steeply rising prices as hobbyists and collectors vied to possess the latest variations – or tur the most profit. The price of a single tulip eventually became more than that of a house, one of the most expensive variations being the beautiful Semper Augustus, with its flame-like variegated petals. Inevitably, the tulip market crashed and many found their financial ruin. The aftermath was notably mocked in several paintings including “A Satire of Tulip Mania” by Jan Brueghel the Younger where tulip investors are depicted as monkeys fighting over the flowers. Despite its checkered past, tulips are still synonymous with the Netherlands and tourists come from every corner of the world to see them growing in beautifully cultivated botanic gardens, and they have never fallen out of favour as a sign of love, sympathy and affection. They do, however, come at a more reasonable price

PINEAPPLES: THE KING OF FRUIT

Pineapples have a very interesting history as a symbol of wealth and power, and a testament to the spread of the British Empire. In 1496 Christopher Columbus managed to bring back a single pineapple from one of his voyages to the New World. The fruit was notoriously hard to transport without rotting and proved exceedingly difficult to propagate in Europe. In 1668 King Charles II – thereafter known as ‘King Pine’ used a pineapple in a power play during a heated debate over who could claim the territory of the island of Saint Kitts in the West Indies. Charles II ordered a Pineapple to be delivered and placed it atop a pyramid of fruit during the dinner with the ambassador as a sign of his superiority of reach. The pineapple became a favourite emblem of power for him, and he later commissioned a portrait of himself being presented a pineapple from the royal gardener.

Pineapples captivated the imagination, but due to the scarcity of them they cost the equivalent of thousands of dollars to procure. Wealthy individuals would go to extreme lengths to import a single fruit, the cost of which would often be offset by renting the pineapple out to other investors who would display the pineapple at their functions in turn – with only the final pineapple proprietor allowed to partake of the fruit itself. Pineapples were reflected in design and architecture, most famously in the Dunmore Pineapple in Scotland. Only when steamboats came into common use did the transit time for pineapples reduce enough for them to become a more accessible item.