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~ Representation of a Skull.
Culture: Mixtec-Puebla
Region Central plateau (?), Mexico
Period : Late Postclassic
Date: A.D. 1200-1521
Medium: Carved obsidian, inlaid with shell and bone
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hwspirilovebot · 7 months
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any hcs on piri's name?
Gabriel Maliksi "Boy Kidlat" Magbanua y Bautista
I knowww. It's too on the nose to name him after women revolutionaries: Gabriela Silang and Teresa Magbanua, or to give him Bautista as a (former) surname, because he was baptized.
Now, Maliksi means speedy or agile. It's more common as a surname than a first name, I believe. Since I headcanon Piri to be born in the 1200s or 1300s, the other ethnolinguistic groups within the PH archipelago we know today just aren't sure what group he's supposed to represent (until 1521) and soon took him under their care, as a "messenger" of some sorts. One guardian would task him to deliver a message to another guardian about a war or conflict, and he delivers fast! Maliksi then became his name.
Antonio baptized him as Gabriel Bautista, and Gabriel is also the archangel who delivers messages. He takes Magbanua and adds Maliksi in his official papers upon his independence. He also had a comic and superhero phase with Alfred, and so he gave himself the nickname "Boy Kidlat" (or Lightning Boy). The older PH ethnolinguistic groups still call him Maliksi, and everyone else who can't pronounce his name goes with Gabriel or "Gabbie".
He's technically Gabriel Maliksi B. Magbanua now, but sometimes, he claims that the B stands for Boy Kidlat instead of Bautista.
Now, fem! Philippines would obviously be Gabriela Luningning "Neneng" Magbanua y Bautista, and Piri would tease her because of that song Neneng B (that's not very feminist of you, Piri)
((I would very much love to hear other Filipinos' thoughts on this!))
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thatsbutterbaby · 2 years
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Medallón de cabeza de búho / Tradición Mixteca-Puebla / Oaxaca / Posclásico tardío / 1200-1521 d.C. / Oro fundido a la cera perdida con soldadura de filigrana
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callmeanxietygirl · 16 days
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🌱La zona arqueológica de Los Reyes La Paz, Estado de México
Es un importante basamento piramidal situado en el extremo oriental de Ciudad de México. Está a unos 20 minutos a pie de la estación de metro Los Reyes, en el Estado de México, y es visible desde las laderas de San Miguel Teotongo. Los Reyes Acaquilpan todavía lleva el nombre de la antigua denominación del pueblo que aquí se encontraba.
Azaquilpan o Axaquilpan suele traducirse como “sobre la hierba de la arena”. Los arqueólogos del INAH que trabajan aquí determinaron, mediante el análisis de la cerámica encontrada en la zona, la siguiente cronología del sitio.
Tres etapas constructivas de artefactos corresponden a los periodos Posclásico Temprano, Medio y Tardío. Las más antiguas corresponden a la fase Mazapa (800-1100 a.e.c.). La ciudad surgió bajo la influencia de Tula, el poder dominante en el altiplano central, alrededor del año 800 e.c. Algunos asentamientos menores al este del sitio actual fueron abandonados aproximadamente en esa época.
Unos 400 años más tarde (circa 1200 e.c.), grupos nómadas del norte de México comenzaron a asentarse en el altiplano central mexicano. Se cree que se apoderaron del sitio de Los Reyes durante este período. Muchos sitios toltecas (Tula) habían sido abandonados con el declive de esa civilización después de 1050 e.c.
Los continuos avances de los pueblos de habla Nahua resultaron en la consolidación de Azcapotzalco, Tenayuca, Cuautitlán, Texcoco y Chalco alrededor de principios del siglo XV. Los Reyes pagaba entonces, con toda probabilidad, tributo a Chimalhuacán, que a su vez era dependiente de Texcoco. La ciudad resultante contaba con varios cientos de habitantes en su apogeo. Es probable que se dedicaran principalmente a la extracción de piedra basáltica utilizada para la construcción, aunque sin duda también pescaban.
El sitio fue abandonado casi por completo con la invasión española. Los visitantes ven hoy en día la gran base con una pirámide de tres cuerpos escalonados. Estos se construyeron en tres etapas entre 1100-1200 e.c. y de nuevo antes de 1521.
La pirámide es una de las pocas orientadas al oeste, por lo que es probable que esté asociada a Huitzilopochtli, la deidad del sol.
Tomado de :Méxicocity.mx
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Fotografías: Arqueología de México
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artifacts-archive · 2 months
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Tripod Bowl Depicting Head of Bird on its Interior Surface
Cholula, Mixteca-Puebla style, 1200–1521 CE
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tlatollotl · 2 years
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slit-drum
Cultures/periods: Mixtec
Production date: 1200 - 1521
Findspot: Oaxaca
Provenience unknown, possibly looted
Slit-drum, teponaztli made of wood, carved in the shape of a crouching human figure.
British Museum
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elonasblog · 11 months
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Historic context of Postclassic Period
We make sense of what the postclassic period is, its verifiable setting and its qualities. Additionally, what are the principal developments and that's just the beginning.
Among the primary societies of the Postclassic time frame , the Mayan, Inca and Aztec realms stuck out, whose set of experiences was deciphered in light of archeological proof and the narratives of the Spanish who colonized the American terrains and crushed the people groups.Noteworthy setting The expression "Mesoamerica", which comes from the Greek, implies middle of the road America and alludes to the regions of Mexico , Guatemala , El Salvador, Belize, Nicaragua , Honduras and Costa Rica.
Historic context of Postclassic Period
The Postclassic time frame relates to the last phase of the historical backdrop of pre-Columbian America, between 900 Promotion. C. also, 1521 d. C. This stage was set apart by the decay of the extraordinary civilizations that possessed Mesoamerica , in a setting of enormous military organization, financial issues and populaces extremely various.
The Mesoamerican Postclassic period incorporated the finish of the Medieval times (from 400 Promotion to 1492 Promotion) and started the Cutting edge Age with the European attacks of America .
The Mayan development , comprised of a gathering of free city-states, figured out how to be the most remarkable and progressed of the old style time frame, which was portrayed by the consistent expansion in populaces, forcing structures and high level rural methods that permitted financial advancement.
Attributes of the Postclassic time frame The late Postclassic was described by huge developed domains that were deserted.
The Postclassic time frame was described by two principal stages:
Early Postclassic (900 - 1200 Promotion). It stood apart for the downfall of the urban communities that had arrived at their quality during the Exemplary time frame , particularly the Mayan human progress and its coalitions. A few speculations keep up with that, notwithstanding the tactical mediations, the breakdown could be because of serious dry spells , a result of climatic changes that impacted the utilization of the dirt for crops. Late Postclassic (1200-1521 Promotion). It stood apart for the enormous expansion of developed domains that had been deserted by the old stationary people groups, because of struggles under the surface between free states and the European military intrusions from 1492. The districts of the high countries of Guatemala proved a huge expansion in the populace, particularly of the native Quiché and Cakchiquel people groups. In 1519 the Spanish Hernán Cortés showed up in the Province of Mexica, sent by Lord Carlos I and along with a power of 500 troopers . Its fundamental goal was to stifle the Mayan progress. Notwithstanding, after arriving at southern Mexico, they found that the area of the notorious pyramids and the super populace had evaporated. Amidst the struggles and Mesoamerican debauchery, Cortés ended up being a dictator who stifled forcibly and under Christian strict thoughts, different people groups who lived in northern Mexico.
Postclassic financial matters The city of Tenochtitlán was encircled by channel frameworks and yields.
The Postclassic economy depended on agribusiness as the primary work, which was additionally a movement affected by strict convictions. Its occupants accepted that the ripeness of the land and the efficiency of harvests relied upon the impact of the divine beings.
They made refined pressure driven frameworks for water system , as in the significant city of Tenochtitlán, in Mexico. It comprised of an island encompassed by trench frameworks and fields. This multitude of advances in farming made it conceivable to accomplish more noteworthy creation that added to the improvement of exchange with adjoining populaces.
Major Postclassic developments Among the primary civic establishments of the Postclassic time frame, the accompanying stuck out:
Mayans . They were perhaps of the most exceptional progress in pre-Columbian Mexico, with a mind boggling and complex culture. The social association comprised of various autonomous urban areas subject to a world class military and clerics. The Mayans made a number framework and had the option to perform complex galactic computations. Aztecs . They were a strategic state subject to a thorough semi-divine ruler, alongside the military and ministers. The general public was comprised of craftsmans, traders, laborers, and slaves. The Aztecs fostered an exceptional schooling system, because of advances recorded as a hard copy and science . Incas . They shaped the biggest realm in pre-Columbian America. The public authority was of the monarchical and religious sort, accountable for "the Inca", along with the ministers and the military. They had a praiseworthy and coordinated organization, with extraordinary control of populace, assessment, and asset records. The general public was comprised of craftsmans, laborers, and slaves.
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isvicreninsesi · 1 year
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İsviçre, el konulan kültürel eserleri Meksika'ya iade etti
BERN- Federal Kültür Dairesi, yasa dışı kazılardan çıkarılan kültürel malları ithal ettiği şüphesiyle el konulan iki arkeolojik kültürel objeyi Meksika'ya teslim etti. Federal Kültür Ofisi sözcüsü Anne Weibel, heykellerden birinin MÖ 100-MS 250 yıllarına ait olduğu düşünülen hamile bir dişi köpeği temsil ettiğini söyledi. İkinci heykel, 1200-1521 yılları arasında Kolombiya öncesi dönem tarzında "muhtemelen oturan bir tanrıyı temsil eden kilden bir tütsülüktür". Bu tür nesneler yaygın cenaze törenleridir. İki heykele, yanlış beyan ve yasa dışı yollardan çıkarılan kültürel eşyaların ithal edildiği şüphesiyle Basel Kantonu savcısı tarafından el konulmuştu. Basel'deki yerel gümrük yetkililerinin, nesnelerin Kanada'dan ithal edildiği Temmuz 2019'da bir inceleme gerçekleştirmesinin ardından bir cezai soruşturma başlatıldı. Eserler, Meksika'ya geri gönderilmek üzere kültür ofisine teslim edildi. Çarşamba günü Bern'deki Meksika büyükelçiliğinde düzenlenen törenle gerçekleştirilen kültürel varlıkların iadesi, Kültür Varlıklarının Uluslararası Transferine İlişkin Federal Yasa çerçevesinde gerçekleştirildi. Bu, İsviçre'deki Kültür Varlıklarının Yasadışı İthalatını, İhracatını ve Mülkiyet Transferini Yasaklama ve Önleme Yollarına İlişkin 1970 UNESCO Sözleşmesini uygular. Weibel'e göre, Federal Kültür Ofisi yılda yaklaşık dört ila beş kültürel ürünü iade etti. Read the full article
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christinahobbsofc · 1 year
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Hydroponics Online History and Introduction
Hydroponics Online History and Introduction Hydroponics Online, When all the procedures are followed correctly, hydroponic gardening has grown to be a very profitable business as well as a very well-liked hobby. Once the fundamentals are understood, hydroponic gardening can be a very straightforward and easy method of plant growth. image of Hydroponics Online History and Introduction Getting Started with Hydroponic Gardening Hydroponic gardening is a technique for growing plants that uses minerals and salts in a water-based solution, either on its own or with the help of an inert growing medium, as opposed to growing them in soil. When the general principles of hydroponics are understood and a properly functioning hydroponic system is installed, hydroponic gardening can develop into a very productive way to grow almost any plant, as well as a successful enterprise that generates income when done on a larger scale. All of the different hydroponic systems used for hydroponic gardening are founded on the same fundamental principles of plant physiology. In order to find the vital minerals and nutrients they require to survive, grow, and produce flowers and fruit, plants grown in soil must send out a thick network of roots. This is not the case when gardening in hydroponics. In hydroponic gardening, the plants always have access to nutrient solution, allowing them to focus on top growth rather than necessarily on root growth. Hydroponic gardening not only provides all the nutrients the plants require to thrive, but it also provides higher levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide to hasten the uptake of nutrients with no harmful side effects like viruses, diseases, or insect issues. When used properly, hydroponic gardening techniques essentially eliminate these. Depending on how and what you grow, there are various hydroponic gardening systems available today. NFT, Ebb and Flow, Top Feed, Aeroponics, and other methods are available. The fundamentals of hydroponic gardening are variations in every hydroponic system. In another section of this website, you can take a closer look at the various hydroponic systems that are available. History of Hydroponics The Greek words "HYDRO" for water and "PONOS" for labor or work combine to form the English word "HYDROPONIC." In that sense, it translates to "WATER WORK," which accurately captures the essence of this plant-growing technique. Research has revealed that the ancient Aztecs at the Floating Gardens of Lake Tenochtitlan, Mexico, used hydroponic gardening between 1200 BC and 1521. Research has also revealed that the ancient Babylonians at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon used hydroponic gardening around 550 bc. Despite the fact that they did not have access to modern nutrient solutions, they employed similar fundamental hydroponic plant-growing techniques. Sir Francis Bacon published the first book on soilless plant growing in 1627, and author John Woodward followed suit in 1699. In 1860, Germany perfected the first nutrient solutions for hydroponic growing. Plant physiology did not advance sufficiently until the early 1900s, when it was discovered that soil was not necessary to support plant life. Researchers discovered that plants would thrive if the proper amount of mineral nutrients were provided as a constant liquid solution. With hydroponic gardening, plants frequently grow much larger and more quickly than when grown in soil. NASA has done a lot of research into the viability of space plant life. Today's hydroponic gardening techniques are so refined that fruit production has significantly increased. With hydroponic gardening, enormous crop loads have repeatedly been produced both commercially and for personal use. This success can be attributed in large part to the use of hydroponic gardening, which allows for the replication of the same ideal growing conditions and outcomes. In contrast to traditional farming techniques, hydroponic gardening makes use of variables such as nutrient solutions, carbon dioxide introduction, light, and weather that can be controlled. FAQ Hydroponics Online How do I get started in hydroponics? I'll walk you through the steps of starting your hydroponic garden and have included more in-depth information in the links below. Choosing Plants And Starting Your Seeds. Choose A Light Source. Choose A Hydroponic Grow Medium. Purchase Hydroponic Nutrients & Supplements. Purchase A pH Meter & pH Up/Down. Is hydroponics easy to learn? Creating an indoor hydroponic system for your veggies, herbs, and other plants is a lot easier than people realize. In fact, hydroponics for beginners is for just about anyone. The basic idea is simply to provide your plant's roots with water, nutrients, and oxygen in the absence of soil. What is the most profitable hydroponic crop to grow? What are the 9 Most Profitable Crops to Grow Hydroponically Basil. Basil is one of the most loved herbs in India- it has a great fragrance and adds the perfect flavor to any cuisine. Cilantro. Lettuce. Spinach. Peppers. Spring Onion. Mint. Cucumber. Is hydroponic profitable? Hydroponic farm systems generate an average revenue of $21.15 per square foot. Vertical farming systems earn an average of $41.16 per square foot, but that number can range anywhere from $2.13 to $100. Only 27% of indoor vertical farms make a profit. Meanwhile, half of all container farms are profitable. Is hydroponics cheaper than soil? The cost of hydroponics vs soil depends on a few different factors. Most of the time, though, hydroponics will tend to be a bit costlier overall. Do plants grow faster in hydroponics? Hydroponic plants can grow 40-50 percent faster and can produce 30 percent more than the plants growing in soil. A combination of fast growth rate and a controlled environment creates predictable harvests on a consistent basis. How long do hydroponic plants last? It varies but it's not uncommon for a hydroculture plant to last ten years or more. Although a tougher, more resilient plant, they will still need adequate light, water, nutrients, etc. Is hydroponics better than soil? According to statistics, plants that grow in a hydroponic set up are healthier, more nutritious, grow quickly but they also yield more. If you compare the yield of hydroponic plants with soil-grown plants, crops produced hydroponically yields 20-25% more than crops produced in the soil. How long does hydroponics take to grow? When you put them in a hydroponic system, they're practically supercharged with growth. Some leaves will be ready as soon as three weeks. Lettuce (Iceberg and other head lettuce) – These veggies have a longer in-soil growth time but still do well in a hydroponic system. Look for them to be ready in six to eight weeks. What is the fastest growing plant in hydroponics? Mustard greens, Swiss chard, spinach, kale and watercress are all fast-growing plants that will thrive in a hydroponic system, and typically you can begin harvesting them within a month of planting. How much does it cost to start a hydroponic farm? Plan on spending anywhere between $10,000 and a couple hundred thousand dollars to build such a space. Greenhouses can be as small as a couple hundred square feet or as large as several thousand square feet. The exact cost hinges on the size of the facility you have in mind. 3 hari yang lalu Is PVC pipe safe for hydroponics? Yes, PVC is a food-safe material for gardens and aquaponics. Is hydroponics safe to eat? Food Safety The high humidity of hydroponic greenhouses can make these vegetables susceptible to salmonella contamination. Salmonella can cause food poisoning if ingested, but washing vegetables thoroughly before eating them can often remove any of the bacteria that might be on the surface. Does hydroponics use a lot of electricity? Pumps and other machines used in hydroponic gardening consume relatively little electricity when compared to lighting costs. Still, even the least-used devices will add to utility bills. Ultimately, the consumer inherits the high electricity costs of hydroponic gardening. How much land is required for hydroponics? Prerequisites for hydroponics systems: A space of 10X10 feet on your balcony or the rooftop. An initial investment of about Rs 10,000 for this space. An assortment of vegetables you want to grow. Read the full article
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aztecnews · 2 years
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November 22, 2015
New Important Discoveries at  Zultépec-Tecoaque in Tlaxcala
A new discovery has been made at the Zultépec-Tecoaque archaeological site in Tlaxcala. INAH has found the skeleton of a high ranking Acolhua leader in a cistern, a full size throne made of volcanic rock, and a carved stone with the pictograph of Ometochtli or “Two Rabbit.” The site dates to 1200-1521 CE. The glyph of Two Rabbit is associated with pulque. Pulque was produced in this area. The buried individual was 25 years old. They have also found a cistern with the bones of three different infants that had been cooked or boiled and possibly eaten.
Mexico News Daily has the report here; http://mexiconewsdaily.com/news/evidence-of-pulque-god-found-in-tlaxcala/
INAH has more details in their report with a slide show of the finds. (click on the little green camera icon under the photo). http://www.inah.gob.mx/es/boletines/4933-hallan-entierro-de-personaje-vinculado-con-ometochtli-dios-del-pulque-en-tlaxcala
Earlier report I posted on surprising finds at this site;
Decapitated Spaniards from 1520 Convoy Uncovered at the site of Zultepec-Tecoaque
In 1520 CE, the Alcohua town of Zultepec-Tecoaque captured a supply convoy of 15 Spaniards and 45 food soldiers of Cuban and African descent, women and 350 Indian allies a year after the conquest of Tenochtitlan. The townspeople carved clay figurines of the captives, and sumbolically decapitated the figurines. The captives were then sacrificed and eaten. The captives were held in cells for six months and then all were slowly canibalized, to ask the gods for protection from them. The pigs the Spaniards brought were left uneaten. These would have been strange creatures to the invaded. The captives were torn apart and the meat removed from their bones. One woman was found dismembered with the skull of a one year old placed in her pelvis. Spanish valuables like majolica china, jewelry, spurs, stirrups were tossed into wells. A horse’s rib bone was carved into a musical instrument. The heads of the captives were placed on a skull rack. Cortes dispatched a punitive expedition. The townspeople then hid all of the remains of the Spaniards, which has allowed archaeologists to find the remains.
CTV News has the report here from INAH; http://www.ctvnews.ca/sci-tech/excavation-of-mexican-site-reveals-decapitation-of-conquistadors-1.2602422
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peluxe · 3 years
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Autor no documentado, 1200-1521
Piedra volcánica labrada
115.5 x 53 x 44.5 cm
Museo Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Ciudad de México
En la cultura mexica, Xochipilli es el dios del amor, los juegos, la belleza, las flores, el maíz, el placer y de la ebriedad sagrada; su nombre significa Príncipe de las flores o Noble florido, aunque también puede ser interpretado como flor preciosa o flor noble. No es difícil darse cuenta de que la expresión facial de la deidad representada en esta escultura corresponde a un claro estado de éxtasis, mismo que está relacionado con el consumo de enteógenos.
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theancientwayoflife · 2 years
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~ Finger ring with feline head in relief flanked by two snakes.
Culture: Mixtec
Date: ca. 1200-1521 
Place of origin: Mexico
Medium: Gold alloy
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met-africa-oceania · 2 years
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Vulture Vessel, 1200–1521, Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas
Gift of Carol R. Meyer, 1981 Size: H 8 3/8 × W. 8 1/4 × D. 9 1/8 in. (21.3 × 21 × 23.2 cm) Medium: Ceramic
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/314365
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slam-african · 3 years
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Vessel with Spout in the Form of an..., Mixtec, c.1200–1521, Saint Louis Art Museum: Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas
https://www.slam.org/collection/objects/8931/
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fnmtsdelart · 2 years
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Megapost. Mesoamérica 🌄
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Mesoamérica.
Término con el que se denomina al territorio comprendido entre los paralelos 17 y 22. Más específicamente desde la ciudad maya de Copán en Honduras, y la ciudad La Quemada de los Zapotecas al norte de México.
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Delgado De Cantú, G. M. (2006, 1 diciembre). Área cultural mesoamericana. [Mapa]. En Historia de México I. El proceso de gestación de un pueblo.(Quinta Edición, p. 41).
En 1943. Paul Kirchhoff, antropólogo alemán, acuño el término Mesoamérica o también denominado América Media, estableciéndolo como “área cultural” con semejantes rasgos culturales, establecidos en una lista de 82 elementos, a este estudio se le conoció como Patrón de la cultura mesoamericana.
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Componentes del patrón.
⭐Conocimiento y utilización de una vasta gama de técnicas para la producción agrícola
⭐Fabricación de terrazas y obras hidráulicas de diversa índole.
⭐uso de bastón plantador y el azadón de madera.
⭐Cultivo de maíz, frijol, calabaza, chile, chía y tomate.
⭐Preparación de tortillas de maíz con cal.
⭐Trabajo textil de algodón.
⭐Edificación de complejos urbanos y plataformas piramidales escalonadas,
⭐Usos de estuco para el juego de pelota.
⭐Los excedentes de producción permitieron el desarrollo de la organización social, política y económica.
En esta área se establecieron las siguientes sociedades: olmecas, teotihuacanos, toltecas, zapotecas, mixtecas, totonacas, huastecas, tarascos, aztecas y mayas; estos últimos con un área de influencia tan grande que incluso abarcaron regiones de otros países cercanos.
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Mesoamérica y sus áreas culturales aprox. 2500 a.C. - 1521 d.C. (s. f.). [Mapa]. Regiones del México Prehispánico. https://sites.google.com/site/regionesdelmexicoprehispanic/mesoamerica
Características similares
🌽Agricultura: El cultivo más importante el maíz, ya conocido en el siglo V a. de C. Posteriormente algunas otras especies como alubia, calabaza, chile, camote y aguacate. Practicaban la agricultura mediante el ciclo de las estaciones y también se guiaban mediante la astronomía, realizando calendarios.
🕍Organización religiosa y social: Los cultos son similares en toda la región dirigiéndose a los mismos dioses principales, el sol y la lluvia. Lo mismo sucede con la organización social, gobierno teocrático, política militarista y sociedad comunal.
🏗Arquitectura (religiosa): Se obedece a una unidad mítico-religiosa, estableciéndose centros ceremoniales casi siempre con iguales características.
🏯-Pirámide. Constante en la arquitectura religiosa de forma piramidal, frecuentemente trunca, sirve como base elevada para un santuario, al que se accede mediante unas escalinatas empinadas
🏃‍♂️-Juego de Pelota. Recinto rectangular a cielo abierto, limitado por taludes o muros laterales. A la mitad del campo y en los extremos se le dota de anillos de piedra a tres metros de altura.
Periodización.
A estas civilizaciones desarrolladas en Mesoamérica también se les conocen como precolombinas. Este termino hace referencia al periodo de tiempo anterior al descubrimiento de América por parte de Cristóbal colon. Literalmente significa entes de Colón.
Para estudiar este periodo se creo una periodización.
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López, A. (s. f.). Periodización de Mesoamérica en el contexto de la historia de México. [Cuadro]. En Tiempo Mesoamericano I. La periodización de la historia mesoamericana. (Arqueología Mexicana ed., p. 15).
Preclásico. (2500 a. C. – 1200 a. C.)
Preclásico Temprano (2500 a.C. – 1200 a.C.) Inicio del sedentarismo agrícola y de la cerámica. Cultivo de temporal. Incremento del número de miembros de los grupos humanos. Las aldeas no rebasaban una veintena de chozas. Organización tribal igualitaria. Producción interna de la mayor parte de los bienes de subsistencia, aunque existía el intercambio entre aldeas. Religión manifiesta en entierros bajo pisos de las habitaciones.
Preclásico Medio (1200 a. C. – 400 a.C.) Se produjeron importantes cambios tecnológicos principalmente en la agricultura: represas, canales, terrazas y otros sistemas de control de aguas. Perfeccionamiento de la cerámica y de la talla de piedra. Diferenciación social y surgimiento de jerarquías por linaje. Aumento en el intercambio de materias primas y productos entre aldeas. Surgimiento del calendario y la escritura, Escultura religiosa. Predominio del fenómeno olmeca en Mesoamérica.
Preclásico Tardío. (400 a. C.-150/200 d.C.) Las algunas regiones, agriculturas intensivas y crecimiento rápido de la población. Aumento del número y el tamaño de los asentamientos. Desarrollo de la organización política. Surgimiento de capitales protourbanas como densos centros regionales con aldeas satélites. Expansión del comercio y establecimiento de largas rutas mercantiles. Gran importancia comercial de la obsidiana. Rivalidades y conflictos bélicos entre los centros regionales por el control comercial político. Arquitectura monumental. En algunas áreas, incremento de la complejidad del calendario, la escritura y la numeración.
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Nuñez, J. (s. f.). Horizonte Preclásico. [Mapa]. En Arte Precolombino (pp. 6–7).
Clásico. (150/200 d. C.-c900 d.C.)
Clásico Temprano (150/200 d.C.-650 d.C.) Desarrollo de la agricultura intensiva. Notable incremento y grandes concentraciones de población. Incremento de la especialización ocupacional. Diferenciación social acentuada. Consolidación de elites en el gobierno, con control político e ideológico general. Institución religiosa incluida en esferas de poder. Grandes capitales regional. Surgimiento de los primeros grandes estados mesoamericanos. Comercio a larga distancia, organizado en redes complejas. Influencia de los grandes estados en la economía y en la política locales, regionales e interregionales a partir del dominio comercial. Guerras. Sacrificios humanos multitudinarios. Urbanismo desarrollado, con planificación rigurosa. Complejos arquitectónicos masivos. Panteón bien establecido. Predominio en Mesoamérica de lo teotihuacano.
Clásico Tardío (650 d.C. -900 d.C.)Impresionante desarrollo económico, cultural y artístico. Aumenta la competencia comercial y los conflictos armados. Arquitectura y urbanismo defensivos. Sociedades con marcada pluralidad étnica. Integración de tradiciones regionales diversas en nuevas formas culturales. Arte ecléctico. Esplendor del calendario, la escritura, la numeración y la astronomía.
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Nuñez, J. (s. f.). Horizonte Clásico. [Mapa]. En Arte Precolombino (pp. 6–7).
Posclásico (900 d.C. – 1520 d.C.)
Gran movilidad de los grupos. Auge del culto religioso a la Serpiente Emplumada. Aumento de la arquitectura Civil. Urbanismo y arquitectura defensivos. Arte bélico y con referencias a la muerte. Desarrollo de la metalurgia.
Posclásico Tardío. (1200 d.C. – 1520 d.C.)Expansiones por conquista. Intensificación del sacrificio humano. Aumenta en el arte el hieratismo y las referencias a lo bélico, a la muerte y al sacrificio. La historia de Mesoamérica concluye con la invasión de los europeos, la conquista paulatina de su territorio y el inicio de la vida colonial.
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Nuñez, J. (s. f.). Horizonte Postclásico. [Mapa]. En Arte Precolombino (pp. 6–7).
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Fuentes.
1. Arellano, F. (2002). La cultura y el arte del México prehispánico(Primera Edición. ed.). Universidad Católica Andrés Bello.
2. Delgado De Cantú., G. M. (Ed.). (s. f.). El proceso de gestación de un pueblo. (Vols. 1–4). Pearson.
3. López, A. (s. f.). Periodización de Mesoamérica en el contexto de la historia de México. [Cuadro]. En Tiempo Mesoamericano I. La periodización de la historia mesoamericana.(Arqueología Mexicana ed., p. 15).
4. Núñez, J. (s. f.). Arte Precolombino (1.a ed., Vol. 1). Desconocido. https://es.scribd.com/document/291151046/Arte-Precolombino
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Deity Censer (Xantil)
Eastern Nahua, 1200–1521 CE
Created in the Tehuacan Valley of the southeast corner of modern-day Puebla, this censer belongs to a class of objects popular among the Eastern Nahua peoples of the Late Postclassic period (ca. 1200–1500). Known as xantiles (sing. xantil), these ceramic braziers functioned as receptacles for a type of incense known as copal (tree resin) that, when burned, produced a thick, musky smoke. Rising through the central chamber of these anthropomorphic vessels, the smoke then billowed forth from holes pierced in the hands, chest, mouth, and nostrils. In this way, the burnt offerings allowed ritual practitioners to communicate with the gods.
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